貝淡寧
(上海交通大學(xué),人文藝術(shù)研究院,200240)
與大多數(shù)宗教或哲學(xué)體系相比,儒家學(xué)說(shuō)是相對(duì)“現(xiàn)世”的,它的目標(biāo)是提升我們當(dāng)下的生活方式。此外,儒家學(xué)說(shuō)與其他學(xué)說(shuō)的另一個(gè)不同之處是,它承認(rèn)了我們?cè)谀撤N程度上可以被塑造,而在其他方面卻不可以;儒家學(xué)說(shuō)旨在盡可能地減少我們性格上難以根除的缺陷?!岸Y”的一個(gè)重要功能正是教化人們相互影響的方式,禮的缺失就會(huì)導(dǎo)致個(gè)人之間的相互沖突從而使人們的生活變得艱難,尤其是對(duì)弱者來(lái)說(shuō)更是如此。在這篇論文中,作者討論了荀子的禮制思想,并提出了對(duì)當(dāng)今社會(huì)有益的啟示。
孔子有一句名言,“吾未見(jiàn)好德如好色者也”(15.13)。②The translations are mine unless indicated otherwise.Also, I have used characters rather than pinyin to write Chinese, except for commonly used terms like “l(fā)i”(ritual)and“rang”(deference).My view is that readers of Chinese prefer the characters(less ambiguity)and those who don’t read Chinese won’t make any sense of the pinyin,so there’s no point in using pinyin unless it’s commonly used terms.這段話可以被讀解成對(duì)美色或性的喜愛(ài)是人類(lèi)自身的一個(gè)普遍的特征。與其徒勞地根除這種特征或者以對(duì)一種道德生活的充分認(rèn)同來(lái)取代這種特征,我們最好能夠認(rèn)識(shí)到對(duì)美色或性的喜愛(ài)無(wú)處不在,并確保這種喜愛(ài)不會(huì)帶來(lái)不良結(jié)果,而不是去從事一項(xiàng)沒(méi)有效果的努力來(lái)試圖根除這種吸引,或者試圖用對(duì)倫理生活(例如天主教神父或佛教僧侶的生活)的充分認(rèn)同來(lái)代替這種吸引。這樣并不是為了改變?nèi)藗兪顾麄儾辉倬哂袆?dòng)物性的需要,而是使那些動(dòng)物性需要的表現(xiàn)方式與相互協(xié)作的社會(huì)交往和諧相容。
荀子利用了人類(lèi)生來(lái)就具有“動(dòng)物性”的自然本能的觀點(diǎn),系統(tǒng)地提出了一套意在使有序、和平的社會(huì)生活變得可能的獨(dú)特的儒家哲學(xué)。荀子哲學(xué)的最初假定是人類(lèi)生來(lái)就是不文明的“人之性,其善者偽也”(23.1)。③My English translations Xunzi draw upon John Knoblock’s translation as published in Xunzi(Changsha:Hunan People’s Publishing House,1999)(this two volume set also includes the original text as well as a translation into modern Chinese by Zhang Jue). However, I have occasionally modified the Knoblock translation to suit my style, as indicated with“modified”after the English translation.In this case,I have translated as“惡”as“bad”rather than“evil”(“evil”tends to be closely associated with Christian ideas of sin and hell).如果人們順從他們的肉體本性、放縱自然傾向,侵略和剝削行為一定會(huì)得到助長(zhǎng),從而導(dǎo)致殘酷的專(zhuān)制統(tǒng)治和貧窮(19.1)。在他當(dāng)時(shí)的年代——戰(zhàn)國(guó)時(shí)代——荀子似乎認(rèn)為人們對(duì)自己的自然欲望已經(jīng)失去了控制,“今人無(wú)師法,則偏險(xiǎn)而不正;無(wú)禮義,則悖亂而不治”(如今,如果沒(méi)有老師或者榜樣,人就會(huì)變得偏頗的、邪惡的、不正直的;如果沒(méi)有禮儀或者道德觀念,社會(huì)就會(huì)充滿(mǎn)了反抗,混亂,不容易被治理)(23.3;Knoblock,modified;see also 20.13)。
幸運(yùn)的是,這不是故事的結(jié)束。人類(lèi)能夠通過(guò)學(xué)習(xí)去抑制自己的自然欲望,從而享有和平與協(xié)作的社會(huì)生活帶來(lái)的益處。這種改變的關(guān)鍵就是“禮”(23.3)。通過(guò)學(xué)習(xí)和參與各種禮,人們能夠?qū)W會(huì)抑制自己的欲望①參見(jiàn)儲(chǔ)昭華,明分之道——從荀子看儒家文化與民主政道融通的可能性(The Way of Clear Distinctions:From Xunzi’s Perspective on Confucian Culture to the Possibility of Harmonizing with Democratic Politics)(Beijing:商務(wù)印書(shū)館,2005),265-6,這樣就會(huì)在人們的實(shí)際欲望和社會(huì)中可利用的資源之間形成更好的協(xié)調(diào),最終的結(jié)果是社會(huì)的和平和物質(zhì)富足(19.1)。盡管血緣關(guān)系允許人們分享一個(gè)相互協(xié)作的社會(huì)生活所帶來(lái)的益處,但各種禮所帶來(lái)的人們之間的聯(lián)結(jié)卻并不僅僅以人們之間的血緣關(guān)系為基礎(chǔ)②Donald J. Munro, A Chinese Ethics for the New Century: The Ch’ien Mu Lectures in History and Culture, and Other Essays on Science and Confucian Ethics(Hong Kong:The Chinese University Press,2005),112.。那么確切地講,“禮”究竟是什么意思呢?荀子對(duì)禮的闡釋包含了七個(gè)特征:
(1)禮是一項(xiàng)社會(huì)實(shí)踐(而不是只包含一個(gè)人的行為)。荀子所舉的關(guān)于禮的例子包括樂(lè)禮、婚禮,以及鄉(xiāng)村酒禮(20.12)。他極其詳盡地討論了人們對(duì)待死亡的方式——葬禮和喪禮(19.10-19.22)。值得注意的是,這些儀式的參與者可能會(huì)同時(shí)包含一個(gè)活著的人和一個(gè)死去的人,例如由活著的人為死去的人沐浴以及清洗頭發(fā)(19.16)。因此,前面提到的“社會(huì)”這個(gè)詞所指的范圍應(yīng)該擴(kuò)大到包括健在的人和死去的人之間的相互影響,而不僅僅指健在的人之間相互影響。
(2)禮植根于傳統(tǒng)之中(而不是新發(fā)明的社會(huì)實(shí)踐活動(dòng))。荀子認(rèn)為,“禮有三本:天地者,生之本也;先祖者,類(lèi)之本也;君師者,治之本也”(禮有三個(gè)根本:天地是生存的根本,祖先是種族的根本,君長(zhǎng)是政治的根本。)(19.4;Knoblock,modified)。古時(shí)候(作為楷模的)先王于是自覺(jué)地執(zhí)行并推進(jìn)了限制人們欲望并建立社會(huì)秩序的禮:“先王惡其亂也,故制禮義以分之,以養(yǎng)人之欲,給人之求,使欲必不窮乎物,物必不屈于欲,兩者相持而長(zhǎng),是禮之所起也?!保ü糯氖ネ鯀拹旱渷y,所以制定禮義來(lái)確定人們的名分,以此來(lái)調(diào)養(yǎng)人們的欲望、滿(mǎn)足人們的要求,使人們的欲望決不會(huì)由于物資的原因而不得滿(mǎn)足,物資決不會(huì)因?yàn)槿藗兊挠萁?,使物資和欲望兩者在互相制約中增長(zhǎng)。這就是禮的起源。)(19.1;Knoblock,modified)③I have translated yang 養(yǎng) as “civilize”, in the sense of “make civil” (taking something brutish and make it civilized and compatible with cooperative social existence),which I think more closely approximates what Xunzi is trying to say.Knoblock’s translation of 養(yǎng)is the(more literal?)“nurture.”通過(guò)把禮的起源歸于古時(shí)候偉人的圣賢君主,荀子賦予了“禮”一種“神圣”(sacredness)的意味,這將提高人們關(guān)注并遵循禮的可能性。
(3)禮包含情感和形式(外在的、可見(jiàn)的行動(dòng))兩個(gè)方面。如荀子所述,“凡禮……故至備,情文俱盡”(當(dāng)情感和形式都達(dá)到時(shí),禮的實(shí)施就更加完善了)(19.7;Knoblock)。禮的主要作用是教化我們的動(dòng)物本性,如果人們只是不帶有任何情感地遵循一個(gè)外在的程序,就不可能改變自己的本性。禮需要包含,或者說(shuō)需要引起一種情感的反應(yīng),從而通過(guò)禮并且超越禮本身對(duì)參與者造成影響。不帶有情感地踐行“空洞的禮”并不是荀子意義上的禮。
(4)禮的具體內(nèi)容可以依據(jù)情境有所改變。荀子說(shuō):“禮者,以財(cái)物為用,以貴賤為文,以多少為異,以隆殺為要……故君子上致其隆,下盡其殺,而中處其中?!保ǘY,以財(cái)物為禮儀過(guò)程的體用表現(xiàn),以辨別人的尊卑貴賤為社會(huì)中的體現(xiàn),以施用的多少為差異,以該盛禮則盛禮、該薄禮則薄禮為要點(diǎn)……君子上可以應(yīng)對(duì)復(fù)雜的國(guó)家大禮,下可以參與百姓間的人情小禮,中間可以適應(yīng)諸侯社團(tuán)間的禮儀。)(19.9,Knoblock,modified)。對(duì)禮的主要作用——教化人類(lèi)的欲望——有所明察的相對(duì)聰慧的人,能夠根據(jù)情境對(duì)禮的具體內(nèi)容進(jìn)行調(diào)整,從而使禮發(fā)揮其作用。為了使禮發(fā)揮效用,如前面指出的,它必須包含情感的表現(xiàn)。而且,禮應(yīng)該與其包含的情感成正比例關(guān)系,因此服喪的禮儀應(yīng)該持續(xù)三年,從而適應(yīng)悲痛達(dá)到極致的情況——“三年之喪,稱(chēng)情而立文,所以為至痛極也”(19.18)。服喪的確切期限可以依據(jù)具體的情境和包含其間的情感的性質(zhì)進(jìn)行調(diào)整——例如荀子指出在罪犯被埋葬之后應(yīng)該少有甚至完全沒(méi)有對(duì)他們的哀悼(19.10)。在另一處荀子指出,死去的軀體在埋葬前供人吊唁的時(shí)限不應(yīng)過(guò)于短暫,至少應(yīng)該有50 天,這樣做部分是為了使遠(yuǎn)方的人們有足夠的時(shí)間趕來(lái)憑吊死者(遠(yuǎn)者可以至矣;19.11). 在現(xiàn)在這樣一個(gè)旅途時(shí)間人人縮短的時(shí)代,荀子大概會(huì)同意這種事實(shí)意味著尸體停放以供人瞻仰的時(shí)間同樣應(yīng)有所縮短。
然而,荀子認(rèn)為在某種程度上強(qiáng)加一些專(zhuān)斷(arbitrary)的限制也是有必要的,這些限制是不受他們個(gè)人的選擇支配的。荀子指出,明確給出一個(gè)中止從而使得我們的日常生活能夠繼續(xù)是重要的,“三年之喪,二十五月而畢,哀痛未盡,思慕未忘,然而禮以是斷之者,豈不以送死有已,復(fù)生有節(jié)也哉”(19.18;Knoblock,modified)。這暗示了這樣的限制是必要的,卻有一點(diǎn)專(zhuān)斷,考慮到對(duì)日常生活的恢復(fù),這種限制必須被看做是來(lái)自外部并為個(gè)人選擇設(shè)限的。因此,禮在沒(méi)有好的理由的情況下不應(yīng)該經(jīng)常被改動(dòng),否則它們就會(huì)被視為完全由個(gè)人選擇決定的了。
(5)禮具體表現(xiàn)為:針對(duì)不同的人有不同的對(duì)待(而不是一種平等地對(duì)待每一個(gè)的實(shí)踐活動(dòng))。荀子說(shuō):“君子既得其養(yǎng),又好其別。曷謂別?曰:貴賤有等,長(zhǎng)幼有差,貧富輕重皆又稱(chēng)者也”(君子已經(jīng)得到了禮的調(diào)養(yǎng),又喜愛(ài)禮的區(qū)別。什么叫做區(qū)別?回答說(shuō):就是高貴的和卑賤的有不同的等級(jí),年長(zhǎng)的和年幼的有一定的差別,貧窮的和富裕的、權(quán)輕勢(shì)微的和權(quán)重勢(shì)大的都各有相宜的規(guī)定)(19.3)。禮包括了在共同的社會(huì)實(shí)踐中權(quán)力不同的人,這種社會(huì)實(shí)踐區(qū)別對(duì)待不同的人。我們將要看到,這些實(shí)踐無(wú)論對(duì)于一種社群感的產(chǎn)生還是強(qiáng)者關(guān)心弱者利益的情感傾向的產(chǎn)生都是必不可少的①Xunzi also argues that,by establishing division and specialization,ritual distinctions open the possibility of economic development(see Goldin,Rituals of the Way,76-7,81).。
(6)禮是非強(qiáng)制的(與法律懲罰相對(duì)立)。荀子區(qū)分了三種社會(huì)類(lèi)型:“有道德之威者,有暴察之威者,有狂妄之威者”(16.2)。這三種類(lèi)型是按照可欲性(desirability) 的順序來(lái)排列的,第一種類(lèi)型依靠禮樂(lè)來(lái)維持社會(huì)秩序,盡管不采用懲罰,但人們自覺(jué)地遵守統(tǒng)治者和令人敬畏地占據(jù)統(tǒng)治地位的權(quán)威(16.2)。荀子是務(wù)實(shí)的,他認(rèn)識(shí)到在非理想化的情境中刑罰和法律強(qiáng)制是必需的,但是如果可能的話,最好還是依靠人們自覺(jué)同意并參與的非強(qiáng)制的禮來(lái)維持社會(huì)秩序。當(dāng)禮的原則被廢棄的時(shí)候,人們就會(huì)被欺騙,而且刑罰和懲戒就會(huì)多了(27.13)?;蛟S可以說(shuō),在社會(huì)上,禮的運(yùn)用與刑罰的運(yùn)用二者之間成反比例關(guān)系。
(7)禮具有社會(huì)合法性(而不是像犯罪集團(tuán)間歃血為盟這樣的不被社會(huì)人多數(shù)成員所認(rèn)可的實(shí)踐)。荀子并沒(méi)有清晰地說(shuō)明這個(gè)條件,但是他提及的禮都是來(lái)自社會(huì)日常生活的,而且似乎是被社會(huì)合法性所支持的。至少它們的表達(dá)不會(huì)被禁止其表現(xiàn)的法律所損害,不會(huì)使實(shí)踐者產(chǎn)生罪惡感②For a sociological account of rituals in modern day Western societies,see Randall Collins,Interaction Ritual Chains(Princeton:Princeton University Press, 2004).Collins argues that rituals are pervasive aspects of social life in contemporary life and supports his argument with a range of fascinating examples, from sexual interaction to tobacco rituals.The problem,as Peter Baehr points out,is that Collins sees ritual almost everywhere and cannot easily distinguish between situations that involve ritual and those that don’t(Baehr,“The Sociology of Almost Everything:Four Questions to Randall Collins about Interaction Ritual Chains,Canadian Journal of Sociology Online, January 2005, http://www.arts.ualberta.ca/cjscopy/reviews/interactionritual.html, accessed 23 May 2006). Collins replies in the same online exchange that he can distinguish between situations where ritual interaction is low,medium, or high, but he doesn’t answer the point that there may be situations with no rituals at all (in Xunzi’s case, it would be situations where people exercise naked power,such as torturing a prisoner to extract a confession; it would be stretching things to describe such situations as“failed rituals”or as“l(fā)ow intensity rituals”).For normative theorists,the main problem is that Collins does not distinguish between rituals that serve desirable social purposes (such as generating a sense of concern for the weak and vulnerable) and those that don’t (such as bonding rituals between gangsters).In my view,Xunzi’s account of rituals is more useful for more normative theorists.。
與其他的儒家學(xué)者一樣,荀子也想說(shuō)服政治統(tǒng)治者采納自己的學(xué)說(shuō)。因?yàn)檫@些統(tǒng)治者擁有最高的權(quán)力,利用這些權(quán)力統(tǒng)治者可以把社會(huì)改變成荀子所希望的那樣。在理想社會(huì)中,賢明而仁慈的統(tǒng)治者會(huì)采用上面提到的禮,這樣整個(gè)社會(huì)就會(huì)和諧、和平、繁榮。但對(duì)非理想的社會(huì)而言呢?荀子對(duì)情境保持高度的敏感,并提出了針對(duì)不同的情境中的不同策略③See, e.g., Xunzi’s distinctions between true kings (王), hegemons (霸), and pure opportunists (11.1.a-11.2c), in decreasing order of goodness. Unlike Mencius,Xunzi does recognize that hegemons can be partly bad and partly good,and he even suggests that power politics would be the right strategy to adopt by a ruler who is aware of his own incompetence and seeks out capable ministers(11.2c).。因此問(wèn)題在于:如何去說(shuō)服道德上還未發(fā)生轉(zhuǎn)變的統(tǒng)治者采納這些禮?為了這樣的目的,荀子不得不訴諸統(tǒng)治者自己的私利。然而,問(wèn)題是:在這樣一個(gè)強(qiáng)者能夠依靠野蠻的力量去剝削弱者的“未開(kāi)化”的社會(huì)中,當(dāng)權(quán)者可以最大限度地從中獲益。于是那些當(dāng)權(quán)者需要被說(shuō)服從一個(gè)限制他們的欲望的社會(huì)體系中獲益。因此,荀子的很多關(guān)于禮的討論都是為了說(shuō)服統(tǒng)治者而設(shè)計(jì)的——讓他們?yōu)榱俗约旱睦嬖谏鐣?huì)上推行禮。荀子說(shuō):“禮者……強(qiáng)國(guó)之本也”(15.8)。④On the way that Xunzi’s account of ritual can strengthen the country,see 陸建華,“荀子禮學(xué)之價(jià)值論” (On the Value of Xunzi’s Theory of Ritual), 學(xué)術(shù)月刊,2002, 第二季度期, 63. 陸建華’s otherwise comprehensive account of the function of ritual, strangely enough, does not mention its benefit for the vulnerable members of the community.而且他也提到合適的音樂(lè)能夠增強(qiáng)軍隊(duì)的戰(zhàn)斗力(20.5)。人們會(huì)期望大部分統(tǒng)治者會(huì)接受這類(lèi)建議。
但是禮不會(huì)只給統(tǒng)治者帶來(lái)益處。馬克思主義者和自由民主派成員曾經(jīng)公然抨擊等級(jí)制的禮,因?yàn)樗麄冋J(rèn)為這些禮似乎是為封建社會(huì)的統(tǒng)治階級(jí)設(shè)計(jì)的,所以用于在當(dāng)今時(shí)代并不合適。這是對(duì)荀子思想的錯(cuò)誤解讀,在荀子看來(lái),等級(jí)之禮同樣能夠惠及那些在“自然狀態(tài)”中境遇最差弱者和窮人。沒(méi)有了各種禮,欲望就失去了限制,就會(huì)導(dǎo)致?tīng)?zhēng)斗、無(wú)序和窮困?!岸Y起于何也?曰:人生而有欲,欲而不得,則不能無(wú)求;求而無(wú)度量分界,則不能不爭(zhēng);爭(zhēng)則亂,亂則窮”(19.1)。當(dāng)然,在一個(gè)其可以無(wú)限制地運(yùn)用權(quán)力的社會(huì)體系中,暴君本身不會(huì)成為最大受害者;在無(wú)序和窮困的社會(huì)中①Paul Woodruff interprets Confucius to mean that the main point of the moral hierarchy of li is to“keep the rulers in line who have no human superiors”(Woodruff,Reverence:Renewing a Forgotten Virtue(Oxford:Oxford University Press,2001),106-08,111).的最大受害者是那些弱者。荀子認(rèn)為在沒(méi)有禮的文明舉止的情況下,“強(qiáng)者害弱而奪之”(23.9 Knoblock,modified)②Xunzi goes on to say that “眾者暴寡而嘩之” (the many would inflict violence on the few and wrest their possessions from them) (23.9; Knoblock, modified),presumably to persuade the rich minority that it’s also in their interest to live in civilized society.。將禮付諸實(shí)踐意味著“行禮……賤者惠焉”(27.17;Knoblock)。但是為什么荀子似乎強(qiáng)調(diào)禮包含擁有不同權(quán)力的人呢?
考慮到印度的種姓制度,比起那些將不同地位的人(富人、當(dāng)權(quán)者、窮人、弱者)排除在外的實(shí)踐而言,等級(jí)制度的禮儀似乎更有吸引力。這并不是在等級(jí)的禮和平等主義的禮之間的選擇,而是在究竟是用一套包含強(qiáng)者和弱者在內(nèi)的禮、還是用兩套分別對(duì)應(yīng)有權(quán)者和無(wú)權(quán)者的不同的禮之間的選擇③Xunzi himself did not conceive of the possibility of a socially egalitarian society because he thought that hierarchical society was essential for collective economic efforts.As Henry Rosemont, Jr. puts it, “no hierarchical society, no collective efforts; no collective efforts, no society whatsoever; no society, no justice whatsoever”(Rosemont, Jr., “State and Society in the Xunzi: A Philosophical Commentary,” in Virtue, Nature, and Moral Agency in the Xunzi, eds. T.C. Kline III and Philip J.Ivanhoe (Indianapolis/Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. 2000, p. 9). Collective economic efforts may no longer require hierarchical arrangements in particular areas(like computer software design),but Xunzi’s views about the need for hierarchy to secure collective economic efforts will continue to hold true so long as the mass of humanity continues to toil in fields and factories.。荀子認(rèn)為我們應(yīng)該選擇前者。例如,鄉(xiāng)村酒禮之所以受到稱(chēng)贊是因?yàn)闊o(wú)論老少都從那一個(gè)酒杯中飲酒,“焉知其能弟長(zhǎng)而無(wú)遺也”(從這些禮儀之中可以知道他們能夠尊重年輕的尊敬年長(zhǎng)的而不遺漏一個(gè)人。)(20.12,Knoblock)。諸如公共的生禮、婚禮、葬禮等實(shí)踐的禮都會(huì)有助于把窮人和被邊緣化的人看作社會(huì)文化和共同理解的一部分④As Patricia Buckley Ebrey puts it, “Confucian texts and the rituals based on them did not simply convey social distinctions.At another level, they overcame them by fostering commonalities in the ways people performed rituals”(Ebrey,Confucianism and Family Rituals in Imperial China:A Social History of Writing about Rites(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991), 228. In contrast to early modern Europe, Ebrey argues that “over time class differences in the performance of family rituals seem to have narrowed rather than widened”(Ibid).。在荀子看來(lái),甚至被閹割的罪犯也有資格享有葬禮(19.10)⑤The funerals of castrated criminals should be sparse and low key compared to other funerals so as to reflect the disgraceful life of the criminal (19.10).But if such funerals are contrasted with the recommendations of Xunzi’s supposed Legalist followers–cruel death by torture of the criminal himself if not his whole family–then Xunzi’s humane recommendations become more apparent.。這些禮儀使得當(dāng)權(quán)者認(rèn)可無(wú)權(quán)者同樣是屬于群體的一部分,當(dāng)權(quán)者們就更有可能為無(wú)權(quán)者做一些事情(或者說(shuō)至少克制自己最?lèi)毫拥呢澙沸袨椋?。荀子在恰?dāng)?shù)貙?duì)待死亡問(wèn)題上面給予大量的關(guān)注并不是偶然。很明顯,死去的人是最沒(méi)有能力保護(hù)自己的利益的⑥The dead do have interests: for example, I do not want my body to be laid out in public to be devoured by dogs and insects after I die. It could be argued that the dead can protect their own interests because they have the power to intervene in the world of the living(by means of ghosts and such),though Xunzi would likely reject such supernatural explanations for changes in the world of the living.。因此,那些當(dāng)權(quán)者——健在的人——需要依靠某些適當(dāng)?shù)亩Y來(lái)培養(yǎng)自己的品性,使得自己尊重那些死去的人。荀子詳細(xì)地明確說(shuō)明了修飾尸體的必要性,因?yàn)椤安伙梽t惡,惡則不哀”(如果對(duì)死者不裝飾,就丑惡難看;丑惡難看,人們就不會(huì)哀痛了)(19.12,Knoblock)。他同樣明確地說(shuō)明尸體被修飾一次就要逐漸地被挪遠(yuǎn)一點(diǎn)因?yàn)椤盃杽t玩,玩則厭,厭則忘,忘則不敬”(如果死者近了,人們就會(huì)漫不經(jīng)心;漫不經(jīng)心,就會(huì)厭棄;厭棄了,就會(huì)怠慢;怠慢了,就會(huì)不恭敬。)(19.12;Knoblock,modified)。考慮到使人們平穩(wěn)地過(guò)渡到日常生活,過(guò)渡到包含適當(dāng)尊重的有教養(yǎng)的情感的范圍,以及過(guò)渡到我們對(duì)現(xiàn)實(shí)世界中貧困的人們所負(fù)有的義務(wù)的關(guān)注,這樣的禮應(yīng)該逐漸停止,“動(dòng)而遠(yuǎn),所以遂敬也;久而平,所以?xún)?yōu)生也”(舉行喪禮儀式時(shí)使死者遠(yuǎn)去,是用來(lái)成全恭敬的;時(shí)間長(zhǎng)了就恢復(fù)到平常狀態(tài),是用來(lái)協(xié)調(diào)生者的。)(19.12;Knoblock)。
在我看來(lái),荀子的作品真正的道德價(jià)值在于,他展示了禮——不僅是儀規(guī)和口頭的勸告——是如何在提高那些最有可能苦于“一切人反對(duì)一切人的戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)”的人們的利益。而且,荀子哲學(xué)的真正聰明在于它提出了一個(gè)機(jī)制,這個(gè)機(jī)制似乎能夠使那些對(duì)“一切人反對(duì)一切人的戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)”感興趣的人同樣受益⑦I have learned much from Paul Rakita Goldin’s Rituals of the Way:The Philosophy of Xunzi.However,Goldin seems to assume that all members of society benefit equally from ritual interaction,and he does not interpret Xunzi to mean that the vulnerable may disproportionately benefit from civil life governed by ritual and/or that the powerful may actually lose out compared to the pre-civil life where their desires can be fulfilled with fewer constraints.To be fair,Xunzi does not explicitly argue the views I am attributing to him.But Goldin tries to make sense of the benefits of ritual by reasoning on the basis of“a situation in which a number of actors,of equal strength and intelligence,are pitted against each other,in contention for the same objects,in an arena in which only a finite number of such objects exists.And suppose,further, that there is no law to regulate that actors’interactions” (60). In my view, I doubt that such scenarios of “actors, of equal strength and intelligence, are pitted against each other”would even occur to Xunzi and they are not helpful in trying to explain his views on ritual.Xunzi would take it for granted that the pre-civil social interaction (the “state of nature”) would involve actors of unequal strength and intelligence pitted against each other and he would take it for granted that those with more strength and intelligence benefit disproportionately from‘uncivilized’life and that the vulnerable have most to gain from civil life.Why didn’t Xunzi make such views explicit?Perhaps because he was addressing rulers,and he thought he had to appeal to their self-interest,first and foremost,and he realized he was less likely to persuade them to adopt his views on ritual if he made it explicit that they have the least to gain from civil life governed by ritual interaction that benefits the vulnerable.。
東亞社會(huì)存在著一體化的禮,這些禮構(gòu)成了日常生活和政治生活的一部分。例如,在日本和韓國(guó),不同社會(huì)地位的人見(jiàn)面和分別的禮節(jié)是在鞠躬這個(gè)動(dòng)作的具體實(shí)踐上有所不同的。社會(huì)地位較低人在面對(duì)比他們社會(huì)地位高的人的時(shí)候,鞠躬的幅度要更大一些,反之亦然。從表面上看,有一種奇怪的社會(huì)現(xiàn)象,那就是與美國(guó)這樣在社會(huì)地位上奉行平等主義的社會(huì)相比,等級(jí)化的社會(huì)也擁有相對(duì)平等的財(cái)富分配①According to the Gini indexes in the CIA World Factbook(22 August 2006)(accessed on www.nationmaster.com),Japan has the 63rd most unequal distribution of family income and South Korea is in 77th place.The US is in 36th place.Small European countries tend to be the most equal.。但這其實(shí)并不讓人驚訝。那些富有的和掌權(quán)的社會(huì)成員特別希望與其他社會(huì)成員區(qū)分開(kāi)來(lái),因此刺激他們不去這么做則是一個(gè)挑戰(zhàn)。在像美國(guó)這樣奉行平等的社會(huì)里,權(quán)利高人一等很典型地體現(xiàn)在財(cái)富上。但是在一個(gè)日常禮儀占支配地位的社會(huì)中,不同的禮儀表示不同的社會(huì)地位,當(dāng)權(quán)者不需要依靠物質(zhì)財(cái)富來(lái)顯示他們的“高人一等”。如果這些禮包含了有權(quán)者和無(wú)權(quán)者所分享的禮,這些禮就使得富人獲得了一種與無(wú)權(quán)者共處的社群感,因此他們尋求諸如物質(zhì)財(cái)富這樣支配他人的途徑的可能性上就會(huì)降低。至少,他們會(huì)在顯示過(guò)多的財(cái)富時(shí)感到愧疚,而且他們也不大可能去反對(duì)一個(gè)旨在維護(hù)物質(zhì)平等的政府調(diào)控(例如日本的高遺產(chǎn)稅)。
或許不幸的是,在中國(guó)大陸、香港特區(qū)和新加坡這樣的地方,鞠躬這樣的禮已經(jīng)在很大范圍內(nèi)被更具平等主義色彩的“西方式的”握手禮所取代。然而,平等主義的禮只是廣泛地發(fā)生于相同階層成員中間,而且當(dāng)權(quán)者不大可能去關(guān)心易受傷害者的利益②I do not mean to deny that egalitarian rituals such as handshaking also take place between members of different classes. In such cases, however, they often take hierarchical characteristics: the more powerful will offer his or her hand first and the grip will be firmer.And in East Asian societies the weaker member will often lower his or her head slightly in recognition of the higher status of the powerful person.。當(dāng)權(quán)者很可能從自身就與其他社會(huì)成員分離開(kāi)來(lái),在當(dāng)權(quán)者和易受傷害者之間的社群感就會(huì)更少。這樣弱者和易受傷害者的利益根本上需要通過(guò)強(qiáng)制措施來(lái)維護(hù)。例如再分配的稅收是通過(guò)對(duì)違反者的嚴(yán)厲的懲罰得到支撐的,但是富有者和當(dāng)權(quán)者通常會(huì)知道到違反這些規(guī)定的方法,類(lèi)似的法律就難以生效,尤其是在中國(guó)這樣的大國(guó)中③Tax evasion by the rich is one of the most widespread and difficult to remedy of China’s social problems.。盡管如此,日常的禮儀仍然扮演著社會(huì)群感的重要角色。例如,送禮這一活動(dòng),禮物會(huì)隨著社會(huì)地位的變化而變化,而支配著送禮這一活動(dòng)的禮,在東亞社會(huì)中是普遍存在的。在東亞社會(huì)中迎賓和送別的禮也遠(yuǎn)比大部分西方社會(huì)都要精細(xì)。送別客人的通常情況是,主人全程陪同客人到門(mén)口,而且主人要直到客人的身影消失在視線中之后才能離開(kāi)④In contrast, the Western host typically does not wait until the guest has physically disappeared from view. Once the taxi door closes, the Western host turns away and resumes his or her other activities. My own French-Canadian mother follows such habits, and while I’m hurt at the time I cannot blame her for following the Western ways she has yet to question. It would not be effective to raise the possibility of alternatives because she is quite fixed in her ways (during her visit to China,she insisted on kissing my Chinese friends on the cheeks because “that’s the French way”). In such cases, I’ve learned not to criticize my mother in order to maintain harmonious ties and pay tribute to the value of filial piety.。
在這篇文章中,我想要討論在中國(guó)和其他當(dāng)代東亞社會(huì)中廣泛實(shí)踐著的三種不同的等級(jí)之禮的設(shè)置,這些等級(jí)制度可以在一種自然狀態(tài)下提高那些境遇差的人的利益,而當(dāng)權(quán)者卻能夠自由地縱容他們的自然欲望。如果這些禮能夠他們被預(yù)想的那樣存在并發(fā)揮作用,那么在當(dāng)代社會(huì)推進(jìn)這些禮的想法或許會(huì)更加現(xiàn)實(shí)。被提到的這些禮并沒(méi)有被荀子明確討論過(guò),但是他們有助于闡明荀子的觀點(diǎn)——等級(jí)之禮可以教化人們之間的相互交往,如果不進(jìn)行教化,就會(huì)暴露人類(lèi)社會(huì)骯臟的一面,對(duì)弱者和易受傷害者來(lái)說(shuō)尤其成為問(wèn)題。
然而,我們需要注意的是,本文的主要觀點(diǎn)是規(guī)范性的,表明等級(jí)之禮能夠帶來(lái)平等主義的結(jié)果。文章關(guān)鍵的論據(jù)是從閱讀荀子中得到的啟發(fā),但是我沒(méi)有使用荀子原文當(dāng)中與我的主要論證無(wú)關(guān)的或者似乎與我的主要論證不一致的那些部分。例如,荀子的主要目標(biāo)似乎是想通過(guò)禮來(lái)限制政治統(tǒng)治者的欲望⑤See Masayuki Sato,The Confucian Quest for Order:The Origin and Formation of the Political Thought of Xun Zi(Leiden:Brill,2003),426-28).。然而,在當(dāng)代社會(huì)中,并不只是政治統(tǒng)治者在行使權(quán)力:社會(huì)主義思想家已經(jīng)表明資本主義的組織機(jī)構(gòu)行使超越了工人的權(quán)力,無(wú)政府主義這表明政府官員行使權(quán)力超越了公民的權(quán)力,女權(quán)主義者已經(jīng)表明男人行使權(quán)力超越了女人的權(quán)力,福柯已經(jīng)表明醫(yī)院、監(jiān)獄和其他的社會(huì)機(jī)構(gòu)行使權(quán)力超越了個(gè)人的權(quán)力,等等。我的目的在于表明等級(jí)之禮能夠在社會(huì)各個(gè)領(lǐng)域中起到限制當(dāng)權(quán)者和保護(hù)地位不利者的利益的作用。
而且,荀子認(rèn)為禮是最早被那些作為典范的先王加以推行的,這種觀點(diǎn)在現(xiàn)代社會(huì)似乎也是不合理的?;蛟S荀子本人并沒(méi)有真正認(rèn)可一個(gè)可能為了政治目標(biāo)而被提出的觀點(diǎn):他或許把禮的起源歸于偉大圣賢的先王會(huì)提高人們遵循這些禮的可能性。從另一方面說(shuō),如果人們認(rèn)為這些禮是被隨意制定的,或者可以隨他們自己或者與先王相比不那么完美的當(dāng)時(shí)的政治領(lǐng)袖的意志而重新制定或改變的話,那么這些禮就可以隨著當(dāng)時(shí)的社會(huì)問(wèn)題而改變,其效力也就相應(yīng)地降低了。這就如同君主制,如果被簡(jiǎn)單地視為一個(gè)有意識(shí)的人類(lèi)創(chuàng)造,那么它就在很大程度上失去了它的神秘感。禮的情況同此理。如果一項(xiàng)制度或者慣例在某種意義上被神秘地過(guò)去隱藏起來(lái),它就更可能博得人們的效忠。
幸運(yùn)的是,在當(dāng)代社會(huì),禮不需要被看過(guò)是起源于先賢并得到人們的效忠。重要的是,禮應(yīng)該被認(rèn)為是對(duì)公益及對(duì)古今人類(lèi)的價(jià)值觀有所貢獻(xiàn)。公益不應(yīng)該通過(guò)理性獲得,它應(yīng)該被視為在某種程度上對(duì)人類(lèi)福利而言神秘卻重要的東西①As Stephen Angle puts it (drawing on Paul Woodruff), “It is crucial that reverence (and awe) be reserved for ideals of perfection that lie beyond our full ability to grasp, and thus have a tinge of mystery associated with them: neither specific individuals nor specific institutions – no matter how good – merit reverence” (Angle,“Reverence, Ritual, and Perfection in Contemporary (Confucian) Political Philosophy, paper presented at the International Forum of Political Philosophy, (Beijing)Capital Normal University,September 2006,p.7).。音樂(lè)對(duì)于荀子而言是很關(guān)鍵的,因?yàn)橐魳?lè)能夠鞏固禮的基礎(chǔ),塑造禮的神圣,在參與者之間形成一種團(tuán)結(jié)感:“故樂(lè)在宗廟之中,君臣上下同聽(tīng)之,則莫不和敬”(所以音樂(lè)在祖廟之中,君臣上下一起聽(tīng)了它,就再也沒(méi)有人不和諧恭敬的了)。(20.2;Knoblock,modified)②See Kathleen Marie Higgin’s very interesting essay, “Rising to the Occasion: The Implication of Confucian Musical Virtue for Global Community” (presented at The International Symposium on“Confucianism in the Postmodern Era,”Beijing Language and Culture University,October 2006).那些參與到音樂(lè)的禮的人會(huì)體驗(yàn)到某種尊崇,即,對(duì)禮所表達(dá)的共同思想的尊崇,對(duì)禮的一個(gè)副產(chǎn)品——團(tuán)結(jié)感的尊崇,而且當(dāng)權(quán)者更有可能增加對(duì)處境不利者的關(guān)心③Xunzi was explicitly critical of Mozi’s condemnation of music(see Book 20).Mozi has been viewed has a champion of the poor(the common person),but it could be argued that Xunzi has deeper psychological insights regarding the actual mechanisms (hierarchical rituals involving music and/or drinking and reverence for common ideals)that would lead to powerful to care for the poor’s interests(not to mention Xunzi’s views regarding the necessity for hierarchical division of labor that would develop the economy and provide the foundation for widespread material well-being).?;蛟S會(huì)有非音樂(lè)的方式產(chǎn)生相同的效果,但是音樂(lè)確實(shí)似乎會(huì)觸及人類(lèi)“靈魂”中深層的東西——比如荀子所說(shuō)的“故樂(lè)者……人情之所必不免也”(音樂(lè),就是歡樂(lè)的意思,它是人的情感絕對(duì)不能缺少的東西,所以人不可能沒(méi)有歡樂(lè)。),這種深層的東西使得尊崇感和團(tuán)結(jié)感得以發(fā)展。
現(xiàn)在讓我們轉(zhuǎn)向事例。這些事例似乎都是小事情,但如荀子所說(shuō)“所失微而其為亂大者,禮也”(稍微失去一點(diǎn)而造成的禍亂很大的東西,就是禮。)(27.42;Knoblock)。
在繼承了儒家思想的東亞社會(huì),教師有著相對(duì)較高的社會(huì)地位。有代表性的是,教師不僅在受過(guò)教育的階層那里獲得高度的尊重,而且也會(huì)受到位于在社會(huì)經(jīng)濟(jì)底層人們的尊重④Interestingly,the social status of teachers seems to be independent of their class status.In China,the salaries of teachers is quite low compared to other professions.In fact, I’d argue that the relatively low income of teachers enhances the social standing of teachers,they may be seen as relatively intelligent people who choose their profession at least partly for other-regarding reasons. In Hong Kong, university professors have very high salaries, but their social standing is lower than in China (I taught in both Hong Kong and Beijing,and the different reaction by taxi drivers suffices to demonstrate this point:in Hong Kong,the typical reaction is that I’m lucky to have find the kind of job that provides good material benefits; in Beijing, there seems to more genuine respect for my job, and the respect only increases when I respond half-jokingly that I teach students‘useless’philosophy).。于是出現(xiàn)師生關(guān)系相對(duì)等級(jí)化(與西方相比)的狀況,甚至(或者說(shuō)特別是)在大學(xué)里也是這樣,就不讓人驚奇了。學(xué)生很少,如果有的話,直接稱(chēng)呼老師的名字,他們表現(xiàn)出來(lái)這種順從和尊重在奉行社會(huì)平等的西方人看來(lái)一開(kāi)始就是讓人不快的⑤My first job was at Singapore’s National University.I was only a few years older than most of my students,and I encouraged them to address me as“Daniel,”but it almost never worked. Exasperated, I once scolded a student who repeatedly called me “Dr. Bell” and told him he shouldn’t be so formal and should address me as“Daniel.”He immediately responded“Yes,Sir!”I learned to live with“Dr.Bell”after that.。例如,在酒會(huì)上(或許在現(xiàn)代,相當(dāng)于荀子所解釋的鄉(xiāng)村酒禮上),有代表性的表現(xiàn)為學(xué)生都為教授服務(wù),而且往往在教授喝完自己杯中酒時(shí)才開(kāi)始喝,即使雙方杯中有等量的酒。這樣的禮有表現(xiàn)出對(duì)知識(shí)(用西方的詞匯是追求真理)的尊崇,以及對(duì)那些為我們作出表率、終生認(rèn)同這個(gè)尊崇的人的尊重。
然而,這樣一個(gè)等級(jí)化的安排對(duì)學(xué)生同樣有好處。教師并不是簡(jiǎn)單地用最有效的方式提供給學(xué)生一個(gè)很好的知識(shí)構(gòu)架,然后把知識(shí)傳授給學(xué)生。教師同樣應(yīng)該關(guān)心學(xué)生情感上的快樂(lè)以及道德的進(jìn)步。教授和研究生之間的關(guān)系尤其是豐富多樣的,如果教師僅僅關(guān)注學(xué)生的職業(yè)規(guī)劃從而忽視了學(xué)生的情感與道德利益的話,這在道德上無(wú)疑是重要損失⑥The teacher’s responsibility for the student’s moral development was made explicit in Qing dynasty legal regulations:in the extreme case of the murder of a parent,the offender’s principal teacher would suffer capital punishment (Filial Piety: Practice and Discourse in Contemporary East Asia, ed. Charlotte Ikels (Stanford:Stanford University Press,2004),p.5)。 教師的這些責(zé)任給了教師額外的壓力(與西方社會(huì)相比較來(lái)看),教師同樣要給學(xué)生起到道德上優(yōu)良表率作用,在學(xué)生生活中非學(xué)術(shù)領(lǐng)域同樣贏得學(xué)生的尊重。
在動(dòng)物世界里,一般的情況是強(qiáng)大的野獸在進(jìn)食的時(shí)候擁有優(yōu)先權(quán)。即使像獅子這樣的結(jié)社生活的動(dòng)物,也幾乎不會(huì)考慮到社群中的弱者和易受傷害者。當(dāng)獅子們獵到獵物后,最為強(qiáng)壯的動(dòng)物們首先進(jìn)食,其余的動(dòng)物只能得到最為強(qiáng)壯的動(dòng)物們吃剩的東西。在資源缺乏的年代,孩子、病人和老人往往首先死去。
人類(lèi)為了保護(hù)弱者的利益而提出了進(jìn)餐之禮。在許多社會(huì)中,弱者是依靠健康的家庭成員為他們準(zhǔn)備并提供單獨(dú)的一份食物來(lái)維持生存。不幸的是,這種出于仁慈的激勵(lì)在物質(zhì)資源缺乏的社會(huì)中難以實(shí)現(xiàn),在饑荒的年代,孩子和老人往往首先死去。但是如果當(dāng)權(quán)者——這種情況下,指那些健康的成年人——習(xí)慣于抑制自己日常的欲望的話,他們便更有可能去關(guān)心無(wú)權(quán)者。在東亞社會(huì),進(jìn)餐是一項(xiàng)社群活動(dòng)①The practice of communal eating in China dates from the Northern Song dynasty; previously, separate ‘Western-style’ servings were served to individuals.Whatever the explanation for the change, it contributed to more harmony at mealtime and, arguably, society at in large (see 祼風(fēng)兒, 餐桌邊的中國(guó)文化 (The Chinese Culture of the Dining Table), 南方周末,9 March 2006,D27).,進(jìn)餐的禮節(jié)可以說(shuō)是為了允許較弱的家庭成員公平地分享食物的一個(gè)設(shè)計(jì)。公共的盤(pán)子放在餐桌的中央,而健康的成年人則通常會(huì)不情愿地成為最先開(kāi)始吃同時(shí)又是最后完成進(jìn)餐的人。②In the context of an argument that morality counteracts our bad natures and stems from conscious commitment to ritual and moral duty,Xunzi notes that“今人饑,見(jiàn)長(zhǎng)而不敢先食者, 將有所讓也”(When a person is hungry,upon seeing an elder,he or she will not eat before the elder;rather,the elder will be deferred to)(23.6;Knoblock, modified). On the assumption that Xunzi is describing a common practice of his own day, we can infer that “rang” at mealtime predates communal eating practices.Perhaps the development of communal eating practices further facilitated“rang”practices.他們應(yīng)該限制自己的欲望從而讓其他人的欲望得到滿(mǎn)足(中國(guó)漢字“讓”最好地表達(dá)了在進(jìn)餐時(shí)間上的適當(dāng)行為的觀念)。
有代表的情況是,年長(zhǎng)者應(yīng)該先進(jìn)食,孩子們則應(yīng)該習(xí)慣于在小的時(shí)候延遲進(jìn)食并不要把手伸入到公共食物當(dāng)中。這個(gè)觀念表現(xiàn)了人們對(duì)孝道這一理想的尊重,同時(shí)也訓(xùn)練小孩子“讓”的品質(zhì)③For an interesting account of the practice of meal rotation (taking turns in supporting and feeding the elderly) in contemporary rural China, see Jun Jing, “Meal Rotation and Filial Piety,”in Filial Piety,ed.Charlotte Ikels.On the continuing relevance of the value of filial piety in contemporary urban China(notwithstanding the challenges to Confucianism by liberals and Marxists in twentieth century China), see Martin King Whyte, “Filial Obligations in Chinese Families: Paradoxes of Modernization,”in Filial Piety,Ibid.。在當(dāng)代中國(guó),這項(xiàng)行為或許因?yàn)楠?dú)生子女家庭的“小皇帝”綜合癥而中止,但是大多數(shù)家庭似乎仍然會(huì)批評(píng)小孩子在進(jìn)餐時(shí)候的自私行為。④In the past, it was common for children of rich families to eat separately from the adults. Such practices should be criticized if they do not effectively teach the young to defer to their elders.The rituals are only effective at generating concern for the vulnerable if they involve interaction between the different groups of society.
在中國(guó),經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展的特點(diǎn)是大規(guī)模的外來(lái)務(wù)工人員,這些民工大部分是由貧困的農(nóng)民和家庭成員組成的,他們遷徙到城市當(dāng)中來(lái)尋找更好的工作機(jī)會(huì)以及更高的收入。中國(guó)的“流動(dòng)人口”由一億兩千萬(wàn)外來(lái)務(wù)工人員組成,他們?cè)诜缮鲜艿搅藨?hù)口制度(家庭注冊(cè)的體系)的歧視,他們因此不具有同樣的健康保障權(quán)、教育權(quán)、工作權(quán)以及居住權(quán)。此外,這些外來(lái)務(wù)工人員習(xí)慣性地被都市人蔑視,并被懷疑進(jìn)行犯罪活動(dòng)⑤The critics of the hukou system seem to think first and foremost of legal ways of improving it.Such legal measures can be counterproductive(see my book Beyond Liberal Democracy: Political Thinking for an East Asian Context(Princeton:Princeton University Press, 2006),313-21)and they neglect the way that informal rituals can contribute to the well-being of migrant workers.。
但是與物質(zhì)條件不同,這些民工的社會(huì)聲望能夠通過(guò)老板和工人之間的禮得到提升,類(lèi)似于在日本的公司當(dāng)中的那種包含了老板和工人雙方在內(nèi)的共同的禮。在北京,經(jīng)常可以看到從事餐飲業(yè)的民工接受集體的訓(xùn)誡,被要求進(jìn)行晨練,進(jìn)行合唱活動(dòng)以及喊公司的口號(hào)等等。這些代表性的活動(dòng)是在餐館前的人行橫道上進(jìn)行的,完全在公眾的關(guān)注之下。這些禮議在表達(dá)對(duì)公司利益的認(rèn)同,在更寬泛的意義上表達(dá)對(duì)國(guó)家發(fā)展理想的認(rèn)同(集體的訓(xùn)誡有時(shí)會(huì)包含一些愛(ài)國(guó)的內(nèi)容)。
這些類(lèi)似于軍事化的,等級(jí)森嚴(yán)的禮同樣會(huì)給工人們帶來(lái)益處。老板也會(huì)參與在共同的禮當(dāng)中——與工人一起鍛煉、一起唱歌、有時(shí)候與工人一起開(kāi)玩笑,雇主經(jīng)常會(huì)提高對(duì)工人利益的關(guān)心程度,而這在其他的情況下是很難實(shí)現(xiàn)的。這些集會(huì)往往以聚餐活動(dòng)或者到歌廳聚會(huì)的形式結(jié)束,這使得雇主加深對(duì)工人們真正的同情,并通過(guò)給工人送“禮物”的方式來(lái)表現(xiàn)這種同情。例如,有個(gè)偶爾做些服裝設(shè)計(jì)的飯館經(jīng)理為她經(jīng)營(yíng)的飯館中的外來(lái)務(wù)工的年輕女性服務(wù)員制作衣服⑥Example from the Purple Haze restaurant in Beijing, on the small lane facing the north gate of Worker’s stadium. I am involved as a minority shareholder in this restaurant,but I do not make policy or manage the restaurant and can observe such practices qua researcher.。
簡(jiǎn)而言之,不同的禮保護(hù)了不同的弱勢(shì)群體的利益:共同進(jìn)餐的禮保護(hù)了年長(zhǎng)者的利益;為了尊重教師而設(shè)計(jì)的禮保護(hù)了學(xué)生的利益;集會(huì)訓(xùn)誡和晨練的禮保護(hù)了外來(lái)務(wù)工人員的利益。當(dāng)然,這里對(duì)禮的解釋有些過(guò)于簡(jiǎn)潔。一方面,上述對(duì)禮的解釋過(guò)于樂(lè)觀了。有些禮并不像它們的本意那樣有效。例如,對(duì)外來(lái)務(wù)工人員的訓(xùn)誡如果以完全嚴(yán)肅的方式進(jìn)行而沒(méi)有顯示出親和力或幽默感,那么這很可能造成工人的疏遠(yuǎn)。有些禮即使如它們的本意那么有效,也會(huì)帶來(lái)我們不愿看到的負(fù)面的社會(huì)結(jié)果。例如,以家庭為中心的進(jìn)餐時(shí)間活動(dòng)會(huì)導(dǎo)致過(guò)分的家庭主義,結(jié)果是人們不能充分地關(guān)心合法的非家庭成員的利益。
另一方面,我的解釋也沒(méi)有突出禮的積極功能。某些禮儀可以讓多個(gè)弱勢(shì)群體獲益。例如,外來(lái)務(wù)工人員把收入寄給鄉(xiāng)下處境艱難的親戚和朋友是很普遍的現(xiàn)象。某些特別的禮也能夠逐漸培養(yǎng)人們的一些習(xí)慣,而這些習(xí)慣在其他生活領(lǐng)域同樣有益。例如,進(jìn)餐時(shí)謙卑和順從的規(guī)范會(huì)引導(dǎo)小孩子更加注意年長(zhǎng)者的利益,從而在他們長(zhǎng)大成才之后具有關(guān)心年長(zhǎng)者的情感傾向。
這樣,就存在著一個(gè)考慮通過(guò)何種方式會(huì)使得禮所帶來(lái)的有益結(jié)果最大化的需要——就是說(shuō)禮在最大范圍內(nèi)被用來(lái)保護(hù)弱者和易受傷害者的利益,同時(shí)最小化它們的壞的結(jié)果。
荀子注意到禮的原則是“政之挽也”(27.24)。因此,改良的最顯而易見(jiàn)的出發(fā)點(diǎn)便是建立一個(gè)政府機(jī)構(gòu),這個(gè)機(jī)構(gòu)有明確的使命去推進(jìn)幫助共同體中弱勢(shì)群體的禮。①清朝建立了禮部,但是它明確的功能是管理附庸國(guó)之間的關(guān)系而非普遍地幫助弱者,不過(guò)它仍然可能為弱勢(shì)群體帶來(lái)積極影響。人們可以認(rèn)為中國(guó)的帝制并沒(méi)有歐洲的野蠻以及輕視土著人的特色,這部分是因?yàn)楦接箛?guó)對(duì)中國(guó)表示象征性的敬意,因此在附屬?lài)?guó)之間建立了某種涵義的共同體,使得中國(guó)的統(tǒng)治者壓榨附屬?lài)?guó)的弱勢(shì)人民的可能性更低了。我的意思并不是拒絕其它的事實(shí),比如科技的限制也許同樣在限制中國(guó)的君主壓迫附屬?lài)?guó)弱勢(shì)人民的過(guò)程中起了作用。政府機(jī)構(gòu)的任務(wù)就是:保證禮在其內(nèi)部及在生活的其他方面中都產(chǎn)生某種對(duì)弱勢(shì)群體關(guān)注的情感。我的假設(shè)是:影響當(dāng)權(quán)者和易受傷害者雙方的禮最有可能會(huì)產(chǎn)生這樣的情感。根據(jù)荀子的學(xué)說(shuō),不去堅(jiān)持平等是重要的,因?yàn)椴黄降鹊膶?duì)待更有可能產(chǎn)生對(duì)易受傷害者的關(guān)注。我同樣想指出的是,支配著人們相互的社會(huì)交往的禮出現(xiàn)的越多,其產(chǎn)生的情感——貧富群體之間的社群感、關(guān)心境況更差的人的利益的感受就越可能擴(kuò)展到生活的其他領(lǐng)域。②If the main function of a ritual is to mark the boundary between the in-group and the out-group and have bad effects for members of the out-group and society at large(like rituals involving gang members),then such rituals should be discouraged.Such rituals,not surprisingly,tend not to be socially legitimate.如果這些主張是正確的,它們還需要進(jìn)一步的經(jīng)驗(yàn)的證實(shí),那么政府機(jī)構(gòu)就有把這些禮的范圍進(jìn)行盡可能擴(kuò)展的任務(wù)。
政府機(jī)構(gòu)的重要任務(wù)就是為不同群體的相互影響創(chuàng)造社會(huì)條件。在奉行社會(huì)地位上平等的美國(guó),經(jīng)濟(jì)上的不同階層居住地非常分散,他們居住在不同的地區(qū)③See,e.g.,Evan McKenzie,Privatopia:Homeowner Associations and the Rise of Residential Private Government(New Haven:Yale University Press,1996).,富人普遍地不和窮人來(lái)往,結(jié)果他們?nèi)狈Ρ舜岁P(guān)心,不愿意去解決經(jīng)濟(jì)不平等的問(wèn)題。相反,在社會(huì)地位不平等的日本,富人和窮人的住處之間不存在明顯的地理上的分離,不同的階層之間以日常生活為基礎(chǔ)按照共同的(社會(huì)地位上分等級(jí)的)禮互相影響④See Paul Dumouchel,Tableaux de Kyoto:Image du Japon 1994-2004(Quebec:Les Presses de l’Universite Laval,2005),19-20.,結(jié)果使得富人會(huì)去關(guān)心窮人的利益。在中國(guó),貧富差距的日益增長(zhǎng)被普遍認(rèn)為是國(guó)家最緊迫的問(wèn)題之一,這時(shí)候政府機(jī)構(gòu)可以把日本在城市規(guī)劃方面的經(jīng)驗(yàn)看作有助于解決問(wèn)題的一種途徑。例如,日本為混合了不同收入人群的住房建造計(jì)劃提供了免稅政策,這些住房建造計(jì)劃會(huì)為窮人和富人提供混合的公共空間。
有些法規(guī)使得某些禮處于社會(huì)接受的邊界線上,政府機(jī)構(gòu)有權(quán)力廢除它們:這個(gè)觀點(diǎn)是說(shuō),類(lèi)似于法規(guī)這樣的統(tǒng)治方式的停止更可能帶來(lái)社會(huì)接受。打個(gè)比方,如果外來(lái)務(wù)工人員行走于法律的邊界,那么害怕的因素或許會(huì)阻止工人和老板之間社群感的出現(xiàn),更不必說(shuō)與其他領(lǐng)域之間的情感關(guān)聯(lián)了。但是儒家推進(jìn)禮的方式首先并不是訴諸懲罰?!墩撜Z(yǔ)》里最著名的話之一是“道之以政,齊之以刑,民免而無(wú)恥;道之以德,齊之以禮,有恥且格”(2.3)。在我們討論的語(yǔ)境中,這句話的意思是對(duì)法律懲罰的恐懼不可能造就那些產(chǎn)生社群感的情感。如果人們因?yàn)楦械揭环N外在的力量被迫去接受一些禮,禮就可能成為一個(gè)只是形式的空殼而缺乏表現(xiàn)了對(duì)弱者的真正關(guān)切的那種情感。人們應(yīng)該因?yàn)樽约合肴ホ`行禮而踐行禮,而不是不得不踐行禮。
因此我們最好去考慮以一種非強(qiáng)迫的方式促進(jìn)那些能給處境較差的人帶來(lái)影響的禮。例如,政府機(jī)構(gòu)可以為電視節(jié)目提供補(bǔ)貼,讓這些電視節(jié)目展示禮踐行這方面功能的榜樣,比如在飲食實(shí)踐中讓家庭中最弱小的成員先吃,或者包含了老板和外來(lái)務(wù)工人員的公司的活動(dòng)等等。政府機(jī)構(gòu)可以為禮的模范踐行者提供獎(jiǎng)金,例如獎(jiǎng)勵(lì)那些讓殘疾人先過(guò)街的司機(jī)?;蛟S更加雄心勃勃的計(jì)劃是,政府機(jī)構(gòu)的任務(wù)也包含設(shè)計(jì)一個(gè)機(jī)制,通過(guò)這個(gè)機(jī)制我們可以把由這些禮產(chǎn)生的情感擴(kuò)展到生活的其他領(lǐng)域,類(lèi)似于荀子所說(shuō)的能夠在日常生活中培養(yǎng)尊重的情感和關(guān)注責(zé)任的那些服務(wù)方式。
總之,公共政策,特別是間接的、各種非強(qiáng)迫的公共政策有重要的作用。盡管如此,我們必須認(rèn)識(shí)到禮的力量依賴(lài)于使得統(tǒng)治者去關(guān)心弱者的利益這樣一個(gè)道德轉(zhuǎn)換,而歷史上政府轉(zhuǎn)變?nèi)藗儎?dòng)機(jī)的失敗提醒我們小心從事而避免重蹈覆轍。所以禮的情形應(yīng)該廣泛地來(lái)自公民社會(huì)(例如闡釋禮的有益之處的知識(shí)分子)、學(xué)校(例如強(qiáng)調(diào)禮并以身作則的教師)①Xunzi himself emphasized the importance of education in li under the direct education of a teacher (see Henry Rosemont, Jr. “State and Society in the Xunzi:A Philosophical Commentary,” in Virtue, Nature, and Moral Agency in the Xunzi, eds.T.C. Kline III and Philip J. Ivanhoe (Indianapolis/Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company,Inc.2000),11).、家庭(例如鼓勵(lì)孩子讓老人先行的家長(zhǎng)),以及其他首先依賴(lài)勸誡而非強(qiáng)制的社會(huì)團(tuán)體。
我想以這樣的思想結(jié)束這篇文章:對(duì)禮的捍衛(wèi)有普遍的有效性,就如荀子自己堅(jiān)信的那樣。事實(shí)上,即使我的解釋是對(duì)荀子真正相信的或者真正試圖論證的想法的誤解,我所做的捍衛(wèi)依然是有效的。作為一個(gè)知性的歷史學(xué)者,我希望我的解釋是正確的,但是從當(dāng)代規(guī)范性理論的觀點(diǎn)來(lái)看,問(wèn)題在于是否這些我通過(guò)閱讀荀子獲得的關(guān)于禮的積極功能的觀點(diǎn)是適用的,是否能夠在當(dāng)代社會(huì)發(fā)揮它們被假定具有的作用。如果答案是肯定的,那么這些禮就是值得推進(jìn)的。
關(guān)于禮帶來(lái)的轉(zhuǎn)換所具有的價(jià)值的普遍有效性是有某種根據(jù)的。例如,體育競(jìng)賽的禮能夠把人們侵略性的本能轉(zhuǎn)換(教化)為社會(huì)所欲的動(dòng)機(jī)。就像孔子說(shuō)的:“君子無(wú)所爭(zhēng)。必也射乎!揖讓而升,下而飲。其爭(zhēng)也君子”(3.7)②I have modified the translation in The Analects of Confucius: A Philosophical Translation, trans. Roger T.Ames and Henry Rosemont, Jr. (New York: Ballantine,1998),3.7.。這樣做的目標(biāo)不是試圖根除競(jìng)爭(zhēng)的欲望(這樣做即使不會(huì)起反作用,也是無(wú)效的),而是用各種禮去教化這種欲望,比如相撲選手之間的禮或者賽后握手的禮,這些禮都會(huì)產(chǎn)生一種社會(huì)團(tuán)結(jié)感以及一種對(duì)處境不利者的關(guān)切。
團(tuán)隊(duì)競(jìng)賽或許會(huì)更好地適應(yīng)這個(gè)目標(biāo)。通過(guò)參與團(tuán)隊(duì),隊(duì)員們學(xué)到了社會(huì)團(tuán)結(jié)的價(jià)值所在。在非主力隊(duì)員的水平上,球隊(duì)會(huì)擁有實(shí)力相對(duì)較弱的隊(duì)員,因此促進(jìn)對(duì)弱者的關(guān)心以及對(duì)需要指導(dǎo)的隊(duì)員進(jìn)行幫助這些美德會(huì)有助于使得社會(huì)機(jī)構(gòu)包含弱者進(jìn)來(lái)。在主力隊(duì)員的水平上,參賽隊(duì)員和觀眾能夠?qū)W習(xí)到良好的運(yùn)動(dòng)員精神的重要性。而且觀眾也會(huì)學(xué)著尊重失敗者并為他們喝彩,或許會(huì)對(duì)弱者給子更普遍的關(guān)心。
另一個(gè)例子或許就是已經(jīng)在很多社會(huì)中嘗試過(guò)的“恢復(fù)性司法”模式。這個(gè)模式已經(jīng)成功地依靠禮而不是法律的強(qiáng)制生成了社會(huì)團(tuán)結(jié)而且減少了錯(cuò)誤的累犯。就像科林斯(Randall Collins)解釋的:
罪犯在集會(huì)上左右兩側(cè)都被他們的受害者和其他社會(huì)關(guān)系的成員面對(duì)著。這樣的遭遇成功地減少了重復(fù)的犯罪……群眾共同的關(guān)注是有力的,部分地因?yàn)榫熳屪锓缸⒁獾搅耸芎θ说谋憩F(xiàn)。最初的情感因素是很強(qiáng)的:強(qiáng)烈的羞愧與氣憤的感覺(jué);這些感覺(jué)被人們分享和傳遞,因?yàn)樗协h(huán)繞四周的人開(kāi)始表現(xiàn)他們的想法和感受,然后人們被帶進(jìn)了一個(gè)共同的情緒當(dāng)中。結(jié)果是罪犯感到羞愧并感到禮的懲罰,但是在那時(shí)罪犯也通過(guò)分享集體團(tuán)結(jié)的群體情感的方式重新進(jìn)入了社會(huì)當(dāng)中③Collins,Interaction Ritual Chains,111.。
在這個(gè)例子中,權(quán)力的擁有者是犯罪活動(dòng)的受害者,權(quán)力擁有者通過(guò)社會(huì)成員相互影響的方式發(fā)展出了對(duì)罪犯的同情心和對(duì)罪犯的象征性的寬恕。而感受到了自己還是共同體的一員的罪犯本人,在未來(lái)也更加不可能認(rèn)可自己的犯罪行為④George Fletcher provides another example from the American context. Drawing on his own experience reciting the Pledge of Allegiance, he argues that patriotic rituals“are necessary to nurture and maintain a common national identity and a sense of responsibility for the welfare of the nation as a whole” (Fletcher,Loyalty:An Essay on the Morality of Relationships(Oxford:Oxford University Press,1993),xi).。
然而,在一個(gè)沒(méi)有繼承儒家遺產(chǎn)的情境中不太可能對(duì)禮進(jìn)行嚴(yán)肅的捍衛(wèi)。一方面,一些儒家傳統(tǒng)中的核心詞匯——禮和讓——是很難通過(guò)某些方式被翻譯成英語(yǔ)的。我把“禮”翻譯成“ritual”,但是“ritual”在英語(yǔ)中通常有一些負(fù)面的內(nèi)涵,這聽(tīng)起來(lái)就好像在捍衛(wèi)一些過(guò)時(shí)的、機(jī)械的和缺乏創(chuàng)造力的實(shí)踐活動(dòng)。另一些通常的翻譯,例如“rites”和“ritual propriety”也幾乎不能改變這一點(diǎn)。對(duì)“讓”的典型翻譯——“defer”,“concede”,“give in”——也似乎是一些來(lái)自貴族的等級(jí)時(shí)代的過(guò)時(shí)的觀念。⑤It might take actual experience with East Asians for Westerners to really appreciate the social utility of rang. Several years ago, I recall arguing with my wife about which restaurant we should choose for dinner. My Korean graduate student whispered “rang” in my ear, and I understood, I let her choose, and the rest of the evening went smoothly.
在不同文化中不同的價(jià)值所具有的不同的優(yōu)先性,或許也會(huì)影響到人們對(duì)等級(jí)之禮具有的潛在價(jià)值的認(rèn)同。像美國(guó)這樣的西方社會(huì)著重強(qiáng)調(diào)社會(huì)地位的平等而較少?gòu)?qiáng)調(diào)物質(zhì)的平等。在深受儒家思想影響的東亞社會(huì),優(yōu)先性的集合正好相反。因此,西方社會(huì)或許更不愿意為了尋求作為物質(zhì)平等的基礎(chǔ)的等級(jí)之禮而犧牲社會(huì)地位的平等?;蛟S像挪威這樣擁有某些優(yōu)勢(shì)(諸如數(shù)量較少而且相對(duì)純種的人口生活在自然資源豐富的境遇中)的社會(huì)并不必須從事這種在一些因素中相互權(quán)衡的工作,但是絕大多數(shù)東亞社會(huì)卻沒(méi)有這么幸運(yùn)。
還有一個(gè)問(wèn)題就是,推進(jìn)禮的措施在一些外來(lái)的文化中往往訴諸法律、權(quán)利等因素來(lái)解決如何關(guān)心境遇較差者的利益的問(wèn)題。西方政治哲學(xué)從霍布斯到羅爾斯的整個(gè)社會(huì)契約傳統(tǒng),就是把強(qiáng)制性的法律作為維護(hù)在自然狀態(tài)中最有可能受到傷害的人群的利益的主要機(jī)制。而當(dāng)代西方社會(huì)中基于權(quán)利的福利國(guó)家同樣首要地依靠法律來(lái)保護(hù)弱者和易受傷害者的利益。簡(jiǎn)單地說(shuō)(或許過(guò)于簡(jiǎn)單地說(shuō)),東亞政治思想和實(shí)踐的主流是“先禮后兵”(first ritual,then coercion)①I(mǎi) say“oversimplify”because there are counterexamples,such as the case of restorative justice mentioned above.At the level of theory,the emphasis on legal,rights based solutions to problems has been challenged by communitarian theorists. Amitai Etzioni, for example, has called for a moratorium on rights in the American context and the strengthening of the family and civil society as a way of generating concern for social responsibilities (Etzioni, The Spirit of Community (New York:Crown Publishers, 1993). Robert Putnam has empirically demonstrated the importance of associational life in generating the social capital that is crucial for decent social life (Putnam, Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2001). Such views, unfortunately, remain marginal in American political discourse that continues to emphasize legal solutions to social problems. From a normative perspective, the literature on communitarianism and social capital may be criticized on the grounds that there may be more of a need to distinguish between class-based associations/communities that generate solidarity only within particular classes and the associations/communities that involve ritual interaction between the powerful and the vulnerable and hence generate concern for the worst-off.,這是與西方相反的②I say“oversimplify”because there are counterexamples,such as the case of restorative justice mentioned above.At the level of theory,the emphasis on legal,rights based solutions to problems has been challenged by communitarian theorists. Amitai Etzioni, for example, has called for a moratorium on rights in the American context and the strengthening of the family and civil society as a way of generating concern for social responsibilities (Etzioni, The Spirit of Community (New York:Crown Publishers, 1993). Robert Putnam has empirically demonstrated the importance of associational life in generating the social capital that is crucial for decent social life (Putnam, Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2001). Such views, unfortunately, remain marginal in American political discourse that continues to emphasize legal solutions to social problems. From a normative perspective, the literature on communitarianism and social capital may be criticized on the grounds that there may be more of a need to distinguish between class-based associations/communities that generate solidarity only within particular classes and the associations/communities that involve ritual interaction between the powerful and the vulnerable and hence generate concern for the worst-off.。
并不讓人驚訝的是,在中國(guó)一些基于西方的倡導(dǎo)人權(quán)的群體指責(zé)國(guó)家缺乏最基本的對(duì)法律法規(guī)的堅(jiān)持,他們的這個(gè)看法的假設(shè)是西方式的法律將會(huì)有助于保全境遇較差的人的利益。我的意思并不是拒絕承認(rèn)一個(gè)對(duì)法律的規(guī)則有著更嚴(yán)肅的認(rèn)同的國(guó)家的境況會(huì)更好(尤其是其他情況是典型的有益于富裕者和統(tǒng)治者的腐敗的政治過(guò)程的時(shí)候),但是過(guò)分的關(guān)注法律機(jī)制會(huì)使得改革者忽視禮的力量,會(huì)使得改革者不去關(guān)注對(duì)問(wèn)題的這些法律上的解決從長(zhǎng)遠(yuǎn)看破壞了社會(huì)的社群感的可能性,而正是這些社群感使得統(tǒng)治者去關(guān)心易受傷害者的利益。更加肯定地說(shuō),因?yàn)槎Y已經(jīng)深深地扎根于東亞社會(huì)的哲學(xué)觀和日常社會(huì)實(shí)踐當(dāng)中,我們相信中國(guó)和其他地方的改革者們能夠而且應(yīng)該更加關(guān)注禮的積極功能③Several mainland Chinese scholars have recently drawn inspiration from Xunzi’s defense of ritual to draw implications for contemporary society: (1) 王麗霞argues that the idea of ritual as civilizing desire and making social life beneficial for the people is valuable for contemporary society(王麗霞,“荀子之禮的現(xiàn)代詮釋及其意義” (A Contemporary Interpretation and the Implications of Xunzi’s (Concept of) Ritual), 青島海洋大學(xué)學(xué)報(bào) 社會(huì)科學(xué)版, March 2000, 68; (2) 王群瑛argues that for the importance of ritual because it contributes to the morality that underpins a smoothly functioning market economy(王群瑛,“荀子的‘隆禮重法’ 思想及其現(xiàn)代意義”(Xunzi’s‘Value Ritual and Emphasize Law’Thought and Its Contemporary Implications”, 高校理論戰(zhàn)線,1998.8,57;(3) 李仙娥argues for the importance of ritual because it underpins the morality that makes law effective(李仙娥,“荀子禮法思想的特征與現(xiàn)代啟示”(The Characteristics of Xunzi’s Thought on Ritual and Law and Its Contemporary Implications), 唐都學(xué)刊, 1997, 13 (4), 67; (4) 梅徳高 argues that ritual can be used to unify the people (以禮齊民) and hence can be beneficial to China by reducing corruption and opposing bureaucratization (梅德高, 荀子德治思想及其現(xiàn)代價(jià)值 (Xunzi’s Thought of Ruling the Country with Virtue and Its Contemporary Value), 湖北大學(xué)學(xué)報(bào) 哲學(xué)社會(huì)科學(xué)版, Nov.2003,Vol. 30, No.6,47; (5) 宋立卿 argues for the importance of ritual because it underpins the morality that makes government officials act morally when nobody is watching them (慎獨(dú)) (宋立卿, “荀子的倫理思想及其現(xiàn)代價(jià)值”(Xunzi’s Ethical Thought and Its Contemporary Value), 首都師范大學(xué)學(xué)報(bào)(社會(huì)科學(xué)版), 1997, No. 6, 25-6); (6) 杜培 argues that the current task is to build a democratic system and that it is far more effective to use ritual/morality rather than force to secure people’s obedience(杜培,“荀子禮法-體論及其現(xiàn)代意義”(Xunzi on Ritual and Law:Theory and Its Contemporary Implications), 科學(xué), 經(jīng)濟(jì), 社會(huì),Vol.17,Summer,No.75(2),1999,21).These attempts at drawing implications for contemporary society can be viewed as not-so-veiled critiques of the CCP’s(excessive)reliance on coercion to secure social and political order.。