“物”一般指天地之間有形有象的一切存在，大體有三種不同含義：其一，指有形的具體存在物，包括各種自然物、人造物，也包括各種生物和人。其二，指人倫關(guān)系中發(fā)生的事務(wù)、事情，如侍奉父母、為政治國(guó)等，這個(gè)意義上的“物”相當(dāng)于“事”。其三，指具體存在物或人倫事務(wù)的總和，通常稱(chēng)“萬(wàn)物”。

Wu(物)usually denotes an existence in the universe that has a form or an image. In general，the word has three different meanings. First，it refers to any concrete existence，encompassing all natural and man-made objects，all organisms and human beings. Second，it covers interpersonal matters and activities such as taking care of one’s parents，entering politics，or managing state affairs. In this sense，wumeans “matter.” Third，the word sums up all existing physical and social matters，generally called “everything.”

引例 Citations：

◎有天地，然后萬(wàn)物生焉。盈天地之間者唯萬(wàn)物。(《周易·序卦》)

(先有天地，然后萬(wàn)物化生。充滿(mǎn)天地之間的只是萬(wàn)物。)

First，there is the universe. Then everything comes into being and fills up the universe.(TheBookofChanges)

◎意之所用，必有其物，物即事也。如意用于事親，即事親為一物。(《傳習(xí)錄》卷中)

(良知感應(yīng)運(yùn)用，必然用于“物”上，“物”就是各種事，如良知感應(yīng)運(yùn)用于侍奉雙親，那么侍奉雙親就是一個(gè)“物”。)

Conscience must relate to“things，” which refer to various matters. If one’s conscience is applied to parents，then taking care of one’s parents is the “matter.”(RecordsofGreatLearning)

2.無(wú)為

Wuwei(Non-action)

“為”的一種狀態(tài)。道家以“有為”與“無(wú)為”相對(duì)。所謂“有為”，一般是指統(tǒng)治者把自己的意志強(qiáng)加給他人或世界，不尊重或不順應(yīng)萬(wàn)物的本性。“無(wú)為”的意義與之相反，包含三個(gè)要點(diǎn)：其一，權(quán)力通過(guò)自我節(jié)制的方式遏制自己的干涉欲望；其二，順應(yīng)萬(wàn)物或百姓的本性；其三，發(fā)揮萬(wàn)物或者百姓的自主性。“無(wú)為”并不是不作為，而是更智慧的作為方式，通過(guò)無(wú)為來(lái)達(dá)到無(wú)不為的結(jié)果。

Wuwei(non-action) refers to a state of action. Daoism contrasts “action” to “non-action.”“Action” generally means that the rulers impose their will on others or the world without showing any respect for or following the intrinsic nature of things. “Non-action” is the opposite of “action，” and has three main points：first，through self-control containing the desire to interfere；second，following the nature of all things and the people；and third，bringing into play the initiative of all things and people. “Non-action” does not mean not doing anything，but is a wiser way of doing things. Non-action leads to the result of getting everything done.

引例 Citations ：

◎圣人處無(wú)為之事，行不言之教。(《老子·二章》)

(圣人以無(wú)為的方式處理世事，以不言的方式教導(dǎo)百姓。)

Sages deal with things through non-action and teach ordinary people through non-speech.(Laozi)

◎道常無(wú)為而無(wú)不為。(《老子·三十七章》)

(道總是對(duì)萬(wàn)物不加干涉而成就萬(wàn)物。)

Daoalways makes all things possible through non-interference with them.(Laozi)

3.中庸

Zhongyong(Golden Mean)

孔子和儒家所肯定的最高德行。“中”指言行沒(méi)有過(guò)或不及的狀態(tài)或標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。凡事都有某種限度，超過(guò)和達(dá)不到這個(gè)限度都是不好的?！坝埂卑瑑蓚€(gè)相關(guān)的含義：其一指平常，其二指恒常?！爸小敝挥性谄匠Ｈ沼弥胁拍芎愠２灰住！爸杏埂奔粗冈谌藗惾沼弥惺冀K遵循、符合無(wú)過(guò)無(wú)不及的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。

Zhongyong(golden mean) was considered to be the highest level of virtue by Confucius and Confucian scholars.Zhong(中) means moderate in one’s words and deeds. Everything has its limits，and neither exceeding nor falling short of the limits is desirable.Yong(庸) has two meanings. One is common or ordinary and the other is unchanging. Moderation can be maintained for over a longtime only when one practices it in everyday life.Zhongyongmeans the standard of moderation that one should follow in dealing with others and in one’s everyday conduct.

引例 Citations：

◎中庸之為德也，其至矣乎！(《論語(yǔ)·雍也》)

(中庸作為一種道德，是最高的準(zhǔn)則吧！)

Zhongyongis the highest of virtues.(TheAnalects)

◎中庸者，不偏不倚，無(wú)過(guò)不及而平常之理。(朱熹《中庸章句》)

(中庸就是不偏頗，沒(méi)有過(guò)或不及的平常的道理。)

Zhongyongdoes not bend one way or the other；it is the common principle of neither exceeding nor falling short of the line.(Zhu Xi：CommentaryonTheDoctrineoftheMean)

4.緣起

Dependent Origination

The term is a translation of the Sanskrit word pratītyasamutpda.Yuan(緣) means conditions；qi(起) means origination. That is to say，all things，phenomena，and social activities arise out of the combinations of causes and conditions. They exist in the continuous relationship between causes and conditions. Thus all things originate，change，and demise depending upon certain conditions. Dependent origination is the fountainhead of Buddhist thought and forms the common theoretical basis for all Buddhist schools and sects. Buddhism uses this concept to explain everything in the universe，the constant changes of social and spiritual phenomena，and the internal laws of origination，change，and demise.

引例 Citation：

◎物從因緣故不有，緣起故不無(wú)。(僧肇《肇論》引《中論》)

(萬(wàn)物依因緣的聚合而成，故不能說(shuō)“有”；又依一定的緣而有生滅變化，故不能說(shuō)“無(wú)”。)

All things originate out of the combinations of causes and conditions，thus they cannot be regarded as original existence；at the same time，they arise，change，and demise upon certain conditions，so they cannot be said as non-existence.(Sengzhao：TreatisesofSengzhao)

5.宗法

Feudal Clan System

中國(guó)古代以家族為中心，按血統(tǒng)、嫡庶來(lái)組織、治理家族、國(guó)家、社會(huì)的原則、方法。宗法由父系氏族的家長(zhǎng)制演化而來(lái)，定型于西周，與封建制等互為表里。宗法分為家國(guó)兩個(gè)層面。在家的層面，宗族的嫡長(zhǎng)子是家族的嫡系繼承人，擁有家族的最高權(quán)力，其余家族成員依據(jù)親疏、世系各自確定其在家族中的地位和權(quán)力。帝王公侯或者世家大族的宗族等級(jí)制擴(kuò)展到國(guó)家的層面，對(duì)于王位繼承與國(guó)家政治具有決定性的作用。宗法制數(shù)千年來(lái)對(duì)中國(guó)人的生活方式、思維方式影響深遠(yuǎn)。

This system was central to life in ancient China；it was a system of principles and measures by which a clan，a state，or society was run，based on bloodline or whether a son was born from the wife or a concubine. The feudal clan system evolved from the patriarchal chiefs system. Taking shape during the Western Zhou Dynasty，this system and the feudal system were mutually dependent and complementary. The feudal clan system had two levels：one was the familiallevel，where the eldest son by the wife was the first in line to inherit the family’s property and thus enjoyed the greatest authority. Other members of the clan were allotted their status and authority according to their closeness of kinship，ancestry，or seniority. In the families of the emperor，kings，and other nobility，this pattern was extended to the state or national level. It had a decisive impact on the inheritance of the imperial throne and on state politics. The feudal clan system greatly influenced the Chinese way of life and thinking for several thousand years.

引例 Citation：

◎宗法者，佐國(guó)家養(yǎng)民教民之原本也。(馮桂芬《復(fù)宗法議》)

(所謂宗法，是幫助國(guó)家養(yǎng)育、教化民眾的原始基礎(chǔ)。)

The feudal clan system is a state’s bedrock for fostering and educating itspeople.(Feng Guifen：MyArgumentforRestoringtheFeudalClanSystem)

6.順天應(yīng)人

Follow the Mandate of Heaven and Comply with the Wishes of the People

順應(yīng)上天的旨意和民眾的意愿。“天”即“天命”，指上天旨意。古人認(rèn)為，有德行的人秉承上天意志而確立政權(quán)，成為君主，故稱(chēng)為“天命”?！叭恕敝溉诵摹⒚褚?。它與西方“君權(quán)神授”思想相似，但它還強(qiáng)調(diào)人心、民意，體現(xiàn)了人本思想。在古代它常被用于稱(chēng)揚(yáng)新朝代的建立和社會(huì)重大變革的實(shí)施，以表明其正當(dāng)性、合法性。

The ancient Chinese believed that virtuous men followed the will of heaven in establishing a political regime and becoming its sovereigns；hence their success came from the mandate of heaven. This thought is similar to the Western notion of the divine right of kings；but it also emphasizes the wishes and will of the people，or people-centered thinking. In ancient China，this phrase was often used in praise of the founding of a new dynasty，and the implementation of major social reforms to justify its legitimacy.

引例 Citation：

◎天地革而四時(shí)成。湯武革命，順乎天而應(yīng)乎人。(《周易·革》)

(天地有陰陽(yáng)的變化而形成一年四季。商湯、周武王變革天命[推翻舊政權(quán)，建立新政權(quán)]，是順應(yīng)了上天的旨意和人民的意愿。)

Changes ofyinandyangin heaven and earth give rise to the four seasons.Following the mandate of heaven and complying with the wishes of the people，King Tang and King Wu overthrew old regimes and established the Shang and Zhou dynasties respectively.(TheBookofChanges)

7.為政以德

Governance Based on Virtue

以道德原則執(zhí)掌國(guó)政，治理國(guó)家?？鬃釉谖髦芙y(tǒng)治者一向秉承的“明德慎罰”的基礎(chǔ)上提出了為后世儒家所遵循的“德政”理念。“德政”與“威刑”相對(duì)。“為政以德”并非不要刑法，而是突出強(qiáng)調(diào)道德對(duì)政治的決定作用，將道德教化視為治國(guó)的根本原則與方法。

Governance of a state should be guided by virtue. Confucius expounded this philosophy—which his followers in later eras promoted—on the basis of the approach advocated by the rulers in the Western Zhou Dynasty that prized high moral values and the virtue of being cautious in meting out punishment. Governance based on virtue stands in contrast to rule by use of harsh punishment as a deterrent. It does not，however，exclude the use of punishment，but rather highlights the decisive role of virtue in governance，and regards moral edification both as the fundamental principle and the essential means for achieving good governance.

引例 Citation：

◎?yàn)檎缘?，譬如北辰居其所，而眾星共之?《論語(yǔ)·為政》)

(以道德教化來(lái)治理政事，就像北極星位于天空一定的方位，而眾星都環(huán)繞著它運(yùn)行。)

Governance based on virtue is like the North Star taking its place in the sky，while all the other stars revolve around it.(TheAnalects)

8.文以載道

Literature Is the Vehicle of Ideas.

儒家關(guān)于文學(xué)與道關(guān)系的論述?！拔摹敝傅氖俏膶W(xué)創(chuàng)作及作品；“道”指的是作品中的思想內(nèi)容，但古代文學(xué)家與理學(xué)家將“道”主要理解為儒家所倡導(dǎo)的思想和道德。中唐時(shí)期古文運(yùn)動(dòng)的領(lǐng)袖韓愈等人提出“文以明道”的觀點(diǎn)，認(rèn)為文章主旨應(yīng)合乎并發(fā)揮圣人的經(jīng)典。宋代理學(xué)家周敦頤進(jìn)一步發(fā)展為“文以載道”，提出文學(xué)像“車(chē)”，“道”即是車(chē)上運(yùn)載的貨物，文學(xué)不過(guò)是用以傳播儒家之“道”的手段和工具。這一命題的價(jià)值在于強(qiáng)調(diào)文學(xué)的社會(huì)功用，強(qiáng)調(diào)文學(xué)作品應(yīng)該言之有物、有正確的思想內(nèi)容。但它輕視文學(xué)自身的審美特性，故后來(lái)受到重視文學(xué)自身價(jià)值的思想家與文學(xué)家的反對(duì)。

This term is a Confucian statement about the relationship between literature and ideas.Wen(文) refers to literary creations and works，whiledao(道) refers to the ideas conveyed by literary works. Writers and philosophers in ancient China explicated these ideas as Confucian thought and ethics. Han Yu (leader of the mid-Tang-dynasty movement advocating the prose style of the Qin and Han dynasties)and some others proposed that the purpose of writings should be in line with the classics of the ancient sages as well as promote them. Zhou Dunyi，aneo-Confucian philosopher of the Song Dynasty，expounded the principle of literature serving as a vehicle of ideas. He concluded that literature was like a vehicle while ideas were like goods loaded on it，and that literature was nothing but a means and a vehicle to convey Confucian ideas. This theory was valuable because it stressed the social role of literature and emphasized that writers should know what they were writing about to ensure that their works conveyed correct ideas. However，it underestimated the aesthetic value of literature and later met opposition from thinkers and writers who emphasized the value of literature per se.

引例 Citation：

◎文所以載道也。輪轅飾而人弗庸，徒飾也，況虛車(chē)乎？文辭，藝也；道德，實(shí)也。(周敦頤《通書(shū)·文辭》)

(文章是用來(lái)承載思想和道德的。車(chē)輪與車(chē)轅過(guò)度裝飾而沒(méi)人使用，白白裝飾了，更何況那些派不上用場(chǎng)的車(chē)呢？文辭，只是一種技藝，而道德才是文章的實(shí)質(zhì)。)

Writings are meant to convey ideas and ethics. When vehicles are not used，even if the wheels and shafts are excessively decorated，it is simply a waste. Fine language is only a means for writing，whereas ethics are the essence of writings.(Zhou Dunyi：TheGistofConfucianThought)

9.興觀群怨

Stimulation，Contemplation，Communication，and Criticism

孔子所提出的《詩(shī)經(jīng)》的四種主要功能，實(shí)際也是對(duì)文學(xué)基本功能與價(jià)值的高度概括?！芭d”是指通過(guò)作品的欣賞引發(fā)聯(lián)想，激發(fā)欣賞者對(duì)于社會(huì)人生的思考與志趣提升；“觀”是通過(guò)作品認(rèn)識(shí)自然與社會(huì)人生的各種狀況，透視政治得失；“群”是圍繞作品與別人展開(kāi)討論，交流思想感情；“怨”是表達(dá)對(duì)社會(huì)時(shí)政的不滿(mǎn)，宣泄內(nèi)心的情感。這四種功能有著內(nèi)在的聯(lián)系，涉及文學(xué)的審美功能、認(rèn)識(shí)功能與教育功能。后世學(xué)者對(duì)此不斷有新的闡發(fā)。

According to Confucius，TheBookofSongsserved these four purposes，which summarize the basic functions and values of literature. “Stimulation” means that the appreciation of literary works arouses imagination，stimulates reflection on society and life，and inspires aspirations and interests. “Contemplation” means that reading leads to understanding nature，society，life，and politics. “Communication” means that reading encourages discussion with others，and exchange of thoughts and feelings. “Criticism” means learning how to critically express oneself about state affairs and voice inner feelings. These four functions are closely associated and involve the aesthetic，cognitive，and educational functions of literature. Later scholars have continued to make original contributions to the study of these themes.

引例 Citations：

◎《詩(shī)》可以興，可以觀，可以群，可以怨；邇之事父，遠(yuǎn)之事君；多識(shí)于鳥(niǎo)、獸、草、木之名。(《論語(yǔ)·陽(yáng)貨》)

(《詩(shī)經(jīng)》可以感發(fā)志向，引發(fā)思考，認(rèn)識(shí)世界，可以交流思想感情，表達(dá)不滿(mǎn)情緒。在家可以用它來(lái)侍奉父母，出外可以用它來(lái)侍奉國(guó)君，還可以從中學(xué)到鳥(niǎo)獸草木等眾多事物的知識(shí)。)

TheBookofSongsstimulates the mind，inspires contemplation，enables one to understand society，exchange feelings and thoughts with others，and express resentment. The book guides one on how to support and wait on one’s parents at home and how to serve one’s sovereign in public life. One can also learn about birds，beasts，and plants from the book.(TheAnalects)

◎于所興而可觀，其興也深；于所觀而可興，其觀也審；以其群者而怨，怨愈不忘；以其怨者而群，群乃益摯。(王夫之《姜齋詩(shī)話(huà)》卷上)

(經(jīng)過(guò)作者感興后的作品又具備認(rèn)識(shí)價(jià)值，那么這種感興一定深刻；經(jīng)過(guò)認(rèn)識(shí)又能夠激發(fā)情感的，那么這種認(rèn)識(shí)一定真實(shí)明察；因?yàn)榫墼谝黄鸲a(chǎn)生某種怨恨，那么這種怨恨更加使人難忘；因?yàn)槟撤N怨恨而聚成群體，這樣的群體一定會(huì)更加緊密。)