摘 要 正常狀態(tài)下,人體與腸道微生物群互利共生。腸道微生物群已被證實(shí)與多種疾病相關(guān),而肝臟作為腸道的比鄰器官,無(wú)論是在解剖學(xué)上還是在功能上都與腸道密切相關(guān)。罹患肝病時(shí),腸道微生物群組成發(fā)生顯著變化,且該變化還會(huì)進(jìn)一步促進(jìn)肝病進(jìn)展。本文介紹不同肝病狀態(tài)下腸道菌群及其代謝物的變化和這種變化對(duì)肝病進(jìn)展的影響,以幫助同人深入認(rèn)識(shí)腸道菌群變化與肝病發(fā)生發(fā)展之間的關(guān)聯(lián),進(jìn)而共同探索基于腸道微生態(tài)的肝病預(yù)防和治療新策略。
關(guān)鍵詞 腸道菌群 藥物性肝損傷 自身免疫性肝病 代謝相關(guān)脂肪性肝病 肝硬化 肝癌
中圖分類號(hào):R333.3; R575 文獻(xiàn)標(biāo)志碼:A 文章編號(hào):1006-1533(2024)19-0003-04
引用本文 張會(huì)祿, 潘亦達(dá), 陳堅(jiān). 腸道菌群及其代謝與肝臟疾病[J]. 上海醫(yī)藥, 2024, 45(19): 3-6; 11.
Relationship between gut microbiota and its metabolites and liver diseases
ZHANG Huilu, PAN Yida, CHEN Jian
(Department of Gastroenterology, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200040, China)
ABSTRACT The human body and the gut microbiota are mutually beneficial and symbiotic under normal conditions. The gut microbiota has been proven to be associated with various diseases, and the liver, as a neighboring organ, is closely related to the gut both anatomically and functionally. Numerous studies have shown that the composition of gut microbiota undergoes significant changes when suffering from liver disease and the changes can significantly affect the development of liver diseases. This review summarizes the changes in gut microbiota and its metabolites under different liver disease states and their impact on the occurrence and development of liver disease to help colleagues deeply understand the relationship between the changes in gut microbiota and the development of liver disease, and then jointly explore new strategies for the prevention and treatment of liver disease based on gut microbiota.
KEY WORDS gut microbiota; drug-induced liver injury; autoimmune liver disease; metabolic-related fatty liver disease; cirrhosis; liver cancer
腸道微生物群與人體共存,在人體健康和罹患疾病方面起著重要作用。腸道微生物群從人出生時(shí)開(kāi)始獲得,然后其微生物群構(gòu)成逐漸向成人微生物群靠攏。人生命早期是腸道微生物群發(fā)育的關(guān)鍵時(shí)期,微生物群構(gòu)成對(duì)人體的健康會(huì)產(chǎn)生長(zhǎng)期影響[1]。人體腸道微生物群由細(xì)菌、真菌、病毒、寄生蟲(chóng)和古生菌等組成[2],其中細(xì)菌所占比例較其他微生物高2~3個(gè)數(shù)量級(jí)。不同消化道區(qū)域的含菌量不同,以結(jié)腸含有的細(xì)菌數(shù)量最多。目前,對(duì)于腸道微生物群的研究主要集中在細(xì)菌方面。腸道內(nèi)穩(wěn)定的菌群可以提供人體很多益處,如產(chǎn)生機(jī)體必需的營(yíng)養(yǎng)物質(zhì),維護(hù)腸道黏膜的完整性,促進(jìn)免疫系統(tǒng)成熟等,并能通過(guò)腸道神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)影響大腦功能[3]。年齡、飲食、地理環(huán)境、藥物、疾病等因素均可改變腸道菌群的組成及其代謝物[4-5],進(jìn)而影響人體健康。
已有研究證實(shí),腸道菌群的變化與炎癥性腸病、心血管疾病、糖尿病、阿爾茨海默病、風(fēng)濕免疫性疾病和腫瘤等各個(gè)系統(tǒng)的疾病有關(guān)[6-8]。肝臟作為第一個(gè)接觸來(lái)自腸道血液的器官,其無(wú)論是在解剖學(xué)上還是在功能上都通過(guò)門靜脈與腸道密切相關(guān)。因此,肝臟疾病與腸道菌群有著千絲萬(wàn)縷的聯(lián)系。正常情況下,腸道黏膜屏障會(huì)像“防火墻”一樣阻止細(xì)菌進(jìn)入血液循環(huán),故腸道細(xì)菌不能進(jìn)入肝臟。然而,在某些細(xì)菌的作用下,這種屏障可被破壞,如發(fā)生沙門菌感染時(shí)。此外,一些特定的細(xì)菌,如大腸埃希菌C17,能調(diào)節(jié)腸道黏膜的通透性并促進(jìn)肝臟中白細(xì)胞的募集,進(jìn)而誘發(fā)局部炎癥反應(yīng)并促進(jìn)肝臟疾病進(jìn)展[9]。肝臟和腸道存在著密切的關(guān)聯(lián),如肝臟將膽汁及其代謝物通過(guò)膽管運(yùn)輸?shù)侥c道,而腸道菌群可再次代謝膽汁酸并影響膽管中初級(jí)和次級(jí)膽汁酸的比例[10]。
腸道菌群的組成和結(jié)構(gòu)極其復(fù)雜。腸道中除細(xì)菌外還有細(xì)菌的代謝物,這些代謝物可依來(lái)源分為3類,即細(xì)菌代謝食物產(chǎn)生的代謝物、細(xì)菌修飾宿主代謝物產(chǎn)生的代謝物和完全由細(xì)菌合成的代謝物。腸道菌群與其代謝物協(xié)同作用,共同影響著肝臟。本文概要介紹腸道菌群及其代謝物與不同肝臟疾病,包括藥物性肝損傷(drug-induced liver injury, DILI)、非酒精性脂肪性肝?。╪on-alcoholic fatty liver disease, NAFLD)、自身免疫性肝?。╝utoimmune liver disease, ALD)、肝硬化和肝癌之間關(guān)聯(lián)的最新研究進(jìn)展,為進(jìn)一步研究腸道菌群及其代謝物與肝臟疾病的關(guān)聯(lián)提供參考。
1 腸道菌群與DILI
與DILI相關(guān)的藥物不僅有化學(xué)藥物,也有中藥、草藥、膳食補(bǔ)充劑和保健品等。DILI是美國(guó)急性肝衰竭的最常見(jiàn)病因。口服藥物都會(huì)經(jīng)過(guò)腸道,而腸道細(xì)菌可能通過(guò)酶促反應(yīng)來(lái)改變藥物的療效和安全性。例如,細(xì)菌的β-葡萄糖醛酸酶可將肝臟產(chǎn)生的代謝物他克林-N-葡萄糖苷酸催化游離為他克林,后者會(huì)被重吸收入肝臟,由此增強(qiáng)他克林的肝毒性[11]。藥物還能直接改變腸道微環(huán)境,從而間接地將機(jī)體其他部位的細(xì)菌轉(zhuǎn)移到腸道。例如,質(zhì)子泵抑制劑就可通過(guò)降低胃內(nèi)酸度,使口腔細(xì)菌經(jīng)胃轉(zhuǎn)移至腸道[12]。
腸道細(xì)菌在DILI過(guò)程中具有兩面性。有研究發(fā)現(xiàn)通過(guò)抗生素提前耗竭腸道細(xì)菌可加重雷公藤內(nèi)酯誘導(dǎo)的肝毒性[13],而抗病毒藥溴夫定會(huì)被腸道細(xì)菌代謝為有肝毒性的溴乙烯基尿嘧啶[14]。在不同藥物導(dǎo)致的肝損傷中,腸道菌群的變化并不完全相同,但一般都存在多樣性降低、有益菌減少和致病菌增加的現(xiàn)象[15]。
腸道菌群組成和結(jié)構(gòu)的變化會(huì)影響菌群代謝物的生成。例如,抗菌藥莫西沙星會(huì)通過(guò)抑制毛螺菌科而減少菌群產(chǎn)生包括丁酸在內(nèi)的短鏈脂肪酸數(shù)量,由此導(dǎo)致腸黏膜機(jī)械和免疫屏障受損,最終影響肝功能[16]。在抗結(jié)核藥物所致肝損傷中,腸道中革蘭陰性菌數(shù)量明顯增多,導(dǎo)致血清內(nèi)毒素水平增高,內(nèi)毒素進(jìn)入肝臟后激活庫(kù)普弗細(xì)胞上的Toll樣受體4,引發(fā)促炎級(jí)聯(lián)反應(yīng),最終導(dǎo)致肝損傷[17]。
2 腸道菌群與NAFLD
NAFLD(近期已被更名為代謝相關(guān)脂肪性肝?。┦侵父渭?xì)胞內(nèi)脂質(zhì)的異常堆積,隨著疾病進(jìn)展,可由單純性脂肪肝逐漸發(fā)展為脂肪性肝炎、肝硬化甚至肝細(xì)胞癌。NAFLD的發(fā)病機(jī)制與脂質(zhì)積累、氧化應(yīng)激和炎癥反應(yīng)密切相關(guān),其常見(jiàn)于胰島素抵抗和肥胖患者。越來(lái)越多的證據(jù)表明,腸道菌群失衡引起的代謝紊亂在NAFLD的發(fā)生發(fā)展中起著重要作用[18]。健康個(gè)體與肥胖的NAFLD患者腸道中的擬桿菌門和厚壁菌門數(shù)量有顯著差異。糖尿病患者腸道中厚壁菌與擬桿菌數(shù)量的比值也顯著增高。NAFLD合并肝硬化患者的腸道菌群常呈致病菌增加、有益菌減少的特征[19]。
有研究發(fā)現(xiàn),腸道菌群的變化會(huì)影響甜菜堿、L-苯丙氨酸、酪胺和硫胺素等細(xì)菌代謝物的生成[20]。甜菜堿是甘氨酸的三甲基衍生物,其作為肝細(xì)胞中的甲基供體參與肝臟代謝,在肝臟保護(hù)中起著重要作用。腸道菌群可通過(guò)減少硫胺素和吡哆醇生成,同時(shí)增加L-苯丙氨酸和酪胺生成來(lái)促進(jìn)NAFLD進(jìn)展[21]。此外,在NAFLD患者中還發(fā)現(xiàn)他們的血清脂多糖水平增高[22]。脂多糖可激活巨噬細(xì)胞并使之釋放腫瘤壞死因子-α、白介素-1β和白介素-6等促炎因子,促進(jìn)NAFLD向脂肪性肝炎進(jìn)展。研究還發(fā)現(xiàn),細(xì)菌合成的代謝物脂多糖還能下調(diào)轉(zhuǎn)化生長(zhǎng)因子-β假受體BAMBI的表達(dá),增強(qiáng)肝星狀細(xì)胞對(duì)轉(zhuǎn)化生長(zhǎng)因子-β的敏感性,誘發(fā)并促進(jìn)肝纖維化[23]。
3 腸道菌群與ALD
ALD是一組因免疫功能紊亂而引起的特殊類型慢性肝臟疾病,具體包括自身免疫性肝炎(autoimmune hepatitis, AIH)、原發(fā)性膽汁性膽管炎(primary biliary cholangitis, PBC)和原發(fā)性硬化性膽管炎(primary sclerosing cholangitis, PSC)。除環(huán)境和遺傳因素外,腸道菌群失衡也與ALD密切相關(guān)。
有研究發(fā)現(xiàn),AIH患者的腸道菌群向更耐缺氧方向轉(zhuǎn)變:專性厭氧菌如糞球菌屬、顫螺菌屬和瘤胃球菌科等減少,兼性厭氧菌如鏈球菌、克雷伯菌和乳桿菌等增加[24]。這會(huì)導(dǎo)致具有調(diào)節(jié)T細(xì)胞作用的短鏈脂肪酸生成減少,而短鏈脂肪酸可以通過(guò)增加調(diào)節(jié)性T輔助細(xì)胞來(lái)減弱淋巴細(xì)胞介導(dǎo)的炎癥反應(yīng)[25]。此外,多項(xiàng)研究顯示,雙歧桿菌在AIH患者腸道中特異性減少,且雙歧桿菌的缺乏與AIH活動(dòng)度增高和疾病無(wú)法緩解相關(guān)[26]。
Tang等[27]的研究發(fā)現(xiàn),PBC患者腸道菌群中的克雷伯菌、乳桿菌、梭菌、假單胞菌、嗜血桿菌、鏈球菌、韋榮球菌屬和腸桿菌科均增加,顫螺菌屬、糞桿菌、蘇氏菌和擬桿菌均減少。另有研究顯示,PBC患者糞便中的次級(jí)膽汁酸水平與克雷伯菌和韋榮球菌屬數(shù)量呈負(fù)相關(guān),而與健康個(gè)體的富集菌(如糞桿菌、顫螺菌屬)數(shù)量呈正相關(guān)[28]。
與炎癥性腸病患者和健康個(gè)體相比,PSC患者腸道菌群的特征性表現(xiàn)為菌群多樣性增加,且埃希菌屬、腸球菌屬、梭桿菌屬、乳桿菌屬、細(xì)孔菌屬、藍(lán)藻屬、巴氏菌屬、毛螺菌屬和巨球型菌屬所占比例均顯著增高[29]。同時(shí),研究還發(fā)現(xiàn),腸球菌屬過(guò)多與PSC患者血清堿性磷酸酶水平增高有關(guān),這表明腸道菌群變化可能是PSC的一個(gè)致病因素[29]。
4 腸道菌群與肝硬化
肝硬化是慢性肝臟疾病的終末期表現(xiàn),其常見(jiàn)病因包括病毒性肝炎、酒精性肝病、非酒精性肝病和其他代謝性/自身免疫性肝病。肝硬化的早期病理改變是肝纖維化。研究發(fā)現(xiàn),在敲除促纖維化因子NOX4和RhoA的肝纖維化小鼠中,原本紊亂的腸道菌群表現(xiàn)出有一定程度的改善[30],這表明肝纖維化小鼠的腸道菌群失衡與促纖維化因子有關(guān)。Trebicka等[31]的研究發(fā)現(xiàn),與肝硬化患者相比,健康個(gè)體腸道中的毛螺菌屬和瘤胃菌屬豐度均顯著增高,而腸桿菌屬、梭桿菌屬、產(chǎn)堿菌屬、乳桿菌屬和明串珠菌屬的豐度均顯著降低。Chen等[32]的研究發(fā)現(xiàn),肝硬化患者糞便中的致病菌鏈球菌屬豐度顯著增高、有益菌毛螺菌屬豐度顯著降低,這與患者Child-Turcotte-Pugh評(píng)分較高有關(guān),提示疾病預(yù)后較差。此外,Bajaj等[33]的研究發(fā)現(xiàn),肝硬化患者的結(jié)腸黏膜菌群與糞便菌群之間存在著顯著差異,且肝性腦病患者中同樣存在著此差異。疾病穩(wěn)定的肝硬化患者糞便菌群組成相對(duì)穩(wěn)定,其糞便菌群組成具有用作肝硬化疾病活動(dòng)性生物標(biāo)志物的潛能。
5 腸道菌群與肝癌
肝細(xì)胞癌是最常見(jiàn)的惡性腫瘤之一,其發(fā)生與多種危險(xiǎn)因素相關(guān),其中乙型肝炎病毒感染和黃曲霉毒素B1污染是中國(guó)和印度等發(fā)展中國(guó)家或地區(qū)肝細(xì)胞癌發(fā)生的主要危險(xiǎn)因素[34]。在發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家或地區(qū),丙型肝炎病毒感染和NAFLD引起的肝硬化是肝細(xì)胞癌發(fā)生的主要原因。
對(duì)健康個(gè)體、肝硬化患者和肝細(xì)胞癌患者的腸道菌群譜分析發(fā)現(xiàn),他們的腸道菌群多樣性依次持續(xù)降低,尤以肝細(xì)胞癌患者最為顯著[35]。肝癌的發(fā)生通常會(huì)經(jīng)過(guò)肝硬化階段,但有些肝癌患者無(wú)此階段。一項(xiàng)研究發(fā)現(xiàn),肥胖誘導(dǎo)的肝癌小鼠腸道中的一種革蘭陽(yáng)性菌菌體成分脂磷壁酸能易位至肝臟,由此上調(diào)肝星狀細(xì)胞中衰老相關(guān)分泌表型和環(huán)氧合酶-2的水平[36]。衰老相關(guān)分泌表型的上調(diào)可導(dǎo)致肝臟中各種炎癥和腫瘤促進(jìn)因子的表達(dá),從而促進(jìn)化學(xué)致癌物誘導(dǎo)的小鼠肝癌的發(fā)生。腸道菌群失衡和腸道黏膜屏障功能減弱都會(huì)通過(guò)促進(jìn)炎癥反應(yīng)信號(hào)通路的激活而顯著促進(jìn)肝硬化和肝癌的發(fā)生發(fā)展,而補(bǔ)充益生菌制劑可以抑制肝硬化向肝癌進(jìn)展[37]。此外,腸道菌群的代謝物膽汁酸能夠調(diào)節(jié)肝竇內(nèi)皮細(xì)胞上趨化因子CXCL16的水平,從而控制肝CXCR6+自然殺傷T細(xì)胞的累積,最終影響肝癌細(xì)胞的生長(zhǎng)[38]。腸道微生態(tài)干預(yù)可能對(duì)肝硬化和肝癌的防治具有重要作用。
6 展望
通過(guò)了解腸道菌群如何影響肝臟疾病,可以更全面地認(rèn)識(shí)肝臟疾病的發(fā)生發(fā)展機(jī)制并開(kāi)發(fā)新的治療策略。通過(guò)補(bǔ)充益生菌、益生元,以及使用抗生素、糞菌移植等手段,有望重塑腸道微生態(tài),使失衡的腸道菌群恢復(fù)到健康狀態(tài),從而發(fā)揮肝臟疾病防治作用。益生菌為活的有益菌,口服益生菌可直接增加腸道內(nèi)有益菌的數(shù)量。益生元通常是指不會(huì)被人消化吸收的膳食纖維,其主要用于喂養(yǎng)有益菌,從而調(diào)節(jié)腸道菌群??股乜赏ㄟ^(guò)減少潛在致病菌來(lái)改善腸道微環(huán)境。糞菌移植通過(guò)將健康供體的腸道菌群移植至某些疾病患者腸道內(nèi)來(lái)調(diào)節(jié)患者的腸道菌群組成,這已逐漸成為一種新的治療方式[39]??傊?,通過(guò)運(yùn)用合理的腸道菌群干預(yù)措施并結(jié)合特定的藥物治療,有望從根本上改善上述各類肝臟疾病的預(yù)后。
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