李建萍,李 穎,林 智,李焰生 摘譯
(上海交通大學(xué)醫(yī)學(xué)院附屬仁濟醫(yī)院神經(jīng)內(nèi)科,上海 200127)
神經(jīng)病理性痛(Neuropathic pain,NP)是由軀體感覺系統(tǒng)的病灶或疾病所導(dǎo)致[1],其發(fā)生率在歐洲總體人群中達7%~8%[2,3]。盡管以往的各種努力試圖建立一個更為基本的治療方法,但由于NP 對多數(shù)藥物的反應(yīng)不可預(yù)見,以致NP 的治療仍頗為困難[4-6]。歐洲神經(jīng)病學(xué)協(xié)會聯(lián)盟(EFNS)在2006年提出了第1個NP 藥物治療指南[6],此后,針對各種NP 的新的隨機對照試驗(RCT)不斷發(fā)表,使得指南的更新成為必然。本次目的是檢索2005年以后發(fā)表的所有針對NP 的RCT,提出推薦意見以幫助選擇針對NP 的治療方案,出研究方案以澄清目前未決問題。
在Cochrane 數(shù)據(jù)庫中對2005年以來的相關(guān)研究進行了一個基本檢索。如果不能找到針對某個NP 或者針對某個具有潛在有效性的藥物的高級別研究,我們就將檢索范圍擴大到Medline和其他的電子數(shù)據(jù)庫,包括未經(jīng)發(fā)表的公司研究(2005年1 月~2009年9 月)。證據(jù)等級和推薦級別依據(jù)EFNS標(biāo)準(zhǔn)[8]。
入選標(biāo)準(zhǔn)包括:有對照的Ⅰ類或Ⅱ類研究(低級別研究僅在沒有高級別研究的情況下入選);研究對象為很可能或確定的NP 或三叉神經(jīng)痛的患者;慢性NP(≥3 月);疼痛為主要終點事件(排除以感覺減退為主要終點事件的研究,如化療性神經(jīng)病研究);樣本量不少于10例患者;有明確的療程和隨訪時間;治療方案可應(yīng)用于門診患者;研究藥物為目前已經(jīng)使用或進入3 期臨床研究的藥物;全文以英語撰寫。
排除標(biāo)準(zhǔn)包括:研究的患者組重復(fù),無軀體感覺系統(tǒng)存在病損的證據(jù)(如復(fù)雜的局部疼痛綜合征Ⅰ、纖維肌痛癥、下背痛),使用無法驗證的主要終點事件評估方法的研究;使用病因治療(如α -硫辛酸治療糖尿病)和預(yù)先治療的研究。
我們重點關(guān)注藥物治療對于改善疼痛、癥狀/體征、生活質(zhì)量、睡眠和情緒的有效性以及其相關(guān)的不良反應(yīng)(見附錄1和2)。
檢索到64 項2005年1 月以后發(fā)表的RCT,均使用安慰劑或活性藥物作為參照系,分為3個亞組或者對先前的RCT 進行事后分析。
抗抑郁劑三環(huán)類抗抑郁劑(TCA)的療效在痛性周圍神經(jīng)病(PPN)(主要是糖尿病性)治療性試驗中得到證實,包括3 項Ⅰ類或Ⅱ類的單中心研究[7,9,10]。3個RCT 報道文拉法辛在PPN 中的療效,但對比研究顯示其在受試者反應(yīng)和生活質(zhì)量上的療效不及丙咪嗪[7,11]。不良作用主要是胃腸道反應(yīng),有5%患者出現(xiàn)血壓升高和有臨床意義的ECG 改變。度洛西汀在3個大樣本的糖尿病性PPN 治療研究中顯示有效[12],1個企業(yè)資助的meta分析提示其具有與加巴噴丁、普瑞巴林類似的療效[13],有效性可持續(xù)1年[14]。常見的不良作用包括惡心、嗜睡、口干、便秘、腹瀉、多汗和頭暈,由此導(dǎo)致的停藥率達15%~20%[15,16]。度洛西汀沒有或僅有輕微的心血管不良反應(yīng),但有肝毒性的罕見報道[15]。選擇性5 -羥色胺再攝取抑制劑(SSRI)或米安舍林沒有或僅有輕微的止痛效果[7,17]。
加巴噴丁和普瑞巴林對于糖尿病性PPN 有效[18,19],普瑞巴林的療效呈現(xiàn)劑量依賴的形式[19]。1 項Ⅰ類試驗顯示加巴噴丁與去甲替林療效相當(dāng)[20]。不良反應(yīng)包括頭暈、嗜睡、周圍性水腫、體重增加、虛弱、頭痛和口干。在1 項比較研究中,口干多見于去甲替林,而注意集中困難多見于加巴噴?。?0]。普瑞巴林的停藥率從0%(150 mg/d)[19]~20%(600 mg/d)[21]。其他抗癲 藥物在NP 治療研究的結(jié)果不一致。小樣本的Ⅲ類研究提示卡馬西平有效[7],但大樣本安慰劑對照試驗總體顯示無效或有限療效(見表1)[7,22-29]。無效的一個重要原因是安慰劑效應(yīng)很大[30]。
阿片類羥考酮、曲馬多[31,32]和曲馬多與對乙酰氨基酚合劑[33]能夠減輕糖尿病性PPN 的疼痛。不良反應(yīng)主要有惡心和便秘,長期使用可導(dǎo)致藥物濫用(1 項羥考酮治療糖尿病性NP 的3年研究中,藥物濫用的發(fā)生率為2.6%,更高的發(fā)生率也有報道)[4,34]。由于可能發(fā)生意識模糊,曲馬多在老年患者中應(yīng)慎用,不建議與SSRIs 合用[7,32]。曲馬多與對乙酰氨基酚合劑的耐受性似乎更好一些[33]。
其他有研究報道A 型肉毒毒素[35]、硝酸鹽衍生物[36,37]和一種煙堿激動劑(nicotinic agonist)[38]對NP 有效。其他PPN 治療研究取得陽性結(jié)果的有左旋多巴,結(jié)果不一致的有N -甲基-D -天冬氨酸(NMDA)拮抗劑,其余均為有限療效或者無效(見表1)[10,39]。
聯(lián)合用藥3 項Ⅰ類研究發(fā)現(xiàn)加巴噴丁加阿片類(嗎啡、羥考酮)或加巴噴丁加去甲替林聯(lián)合用藥對于糖尿病性PN 的療效優(yōu)于單藥使用,其中2 項研究包含有皰疹后神經(jīng)痛(PHN)[20,40,41],而1 項小樣本研究提示加巴噴丁與文拉法辛合用優(yōu)于加巴噴丁與安慰劑合用[7]。
HIV神經(jīng)病早期的人類免疫缺陷病毒(HIV)神經(jīng)病治療研究多數(shù)結(jié)果陰性(見表1)[7,42]。僅拉莫三嗪對接受抗病毒治療的患者有一定的療效[43]。近期的RCT 發(fā)現(xiàn)吸食大麻(使用1%~8%的四氫大麻酚5 d)可有效減輕疼痛程度,但無助于疼痛改善和功能[44,45]。不同濃度辣椒素貼劑療效不一,但對感覺閾值無變化[46],但系統(tǒng)綜述認為無效[47]。
推薦TCA、加巴噴丁、普瑞巴林和選擇性5-HT及去甲腎上腺素再攝取抑制劑(SNRI)(度洛西汀、文拉法辛)作為PPN 的一線治療用藥(尤其是糖尿病相關(guān)性)(A 級證據(jù))。曲馬多作為二線用藥(A 級證據(jù)),除非疼痛加劇(曲馬多對乙酰氨基酚合劑)或同時合并有顯著的非NP(鑒于曲馬多對傷害性疼痛的確切療效)。三線治療包括強效阿片類,但考慮到其長期用藥的安全性,包括成癮的可能和濫用,需要進一步的RCT 研究證據(jù)。表1 列舉了無效或效果不肯定的治療藥物。對HIV 相關(guān)性多發(fā)性神經(jīng)病,只有拉莫三嗪(接受抗逆轉(zhuǎn)錄病毒治療的患者)(B 級證據(jù))、大麻(A 級證據(jù))和辣椒素貼劑(A 級證據(jù))被證明有一定療效。
抗抑郁藥物系統(tǒng)綜述顯示TCA 治療PHN 有效,且療效優(yōu)于SSRI[7,50]。沒有關(guān)于SNRI 的試驗。
加巴噴丁和普瑞巴林對PHN 有效,比較研究顯示加巴噴丁與去甲替林無療效差別[20,49]。加巴噴丁緩釋劑的療效優(yōu)于安慰劑[50]。小樣本的RCT 報道丙戊酸鈉對PHN 有較好的療效[51],但試驗僅報道了完成試驗者的數(shù)據(jù)[52]。
阿片類羥考酮、嗎啡和美沙酮對PHN 有效[49]。1 項比較試驗提示三者等效或略優(yōu)于TCA,但患者常因不良反應(yīng)而停藥[7,49]。1個關(guān)于曲馬多的I 類研究得出陰性結(jié)果[7]。
局部用藥5 項Ⅰ類或Ⅱ類的RCT 證實5%利多卡因?qū)HN 伴輕觸誘發(fā)性痛覺異常(allodynia)有效,但療效僅稍優(yōu)于安慰劑,且較全身用藥療效差[7,53]。1個大型試驗入選伴或不伴痛覺異?;颊?,主要結(jié)局陰性,但入選患者的基線資料不均衡[54]。非盲法開放試驗提示利多卡因軟膏比普瑞巴林有更好的耐受性[55]。利多卡因軟膏因其系統(tǒng)吸收率低,僅有局部的不良反應(yīng)(輕微的皮膚反應(yīng))而安全性高,耐受性良好[54,56]。RCT 已證實0.075%辣椒素局部用藥有效[7],但因引起局部燒灼感,故盲法設(shè)計被破壞。在12 周的研究中,高濃度辣椒素貼劑的療效優(yōu)于低濃度貼劑[57]。不良反應(yīng)主要是用藥部位疼痛、紅斑。系統(tǒng)綜述顯示辣椒素貼劑有效[47]。
其他NMDA 拮抗劑、勞拉西泮和選擇性Cox-2抑制劑不能緩解PHN 的疼痛癥狀(見表1)[7,58]。
推薦推薦TCA 或加巴噴丁/普瑞巴林作為PHN 的一線治療用藥(A 級證據(jù))。局部利多卡因軟膏(A 級證據(jù),結(jié)果有輕度不一致性)以其優(yōu)良的耐受性可考慮作為老年患者的一線用藥,尤其是在擔(dān)心口服藥物產(chǎn)生中樞神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)不良反應(yīng)的情況下。對于這樣的患者,可以先試用利多卡因軟膏2~4 周后再考慮其他治療。推薦強效阿片類(A 級證據(jù))和辣椒素霜作為二線用藥(見第1 部分)。辣椒素貼劑是有效的(A 級證據(jù)),但反復(fù)使用后的長期作用尤其是對感覺的影響尚不清楚。
三叉神經(jīng)痛(TN)的典型表現(xiàn)是非常短暫的疼痛發(fā)作(電擊樣),可分為經(jīng)典性和癥狀性。前者繼發(fā)于血管壓迫三叉神經(jīng)或未能發(fā)現(xiàn)明確病因,后者繼發(fā)于橋小腦角的占位或多發(fā)性硬化[59]。
卡馬西平,奧卡西平卡馬西平是TN 的首選藥物,但其療效受到耐受性不佳和藥代動力學(xué)相互作用的限制。2 項Ⅱ類RCT 發(fā)現(xiàn)奧卡西平在減少疼痛發(fā)作次數(shù)和改善綜合評價方面與卡馬西平療效相當(dāng)[60,61]。
其他小樣本研究報道數(shù)種藥物(拉莫三嗪、巴氯芬)對TN 有效(見表1)[61,62],但Cochrane 綜述認為目前的證據(jù)不足以推薦這些藥物用于TN[63]。還有小型非盲研究提示肉毒毒素-A和一些抗癲 藥物對TN 有療效。
癥狀性TN對于多發(fā)性硬化引起的TN,只有一些小樣本的非盲法的Ⅳ類研究[62]。一項小型的開放性研究亦顯示肉毒毒素-A和某些抗癲 藥物有效[62,64,65](表1)。
推薦與以前的指南意見一致[7,61,62],卡馬西平(A 級證據(jù))和奧卡西平(B 級證據(jù))被證實為典型性TN 的一線用藥。因奧卡西平的藥物相互作用小,可作為首選。若患者出現(xiàn)無法耐受的不良反應(yīng),可使用拉莫三嗪(C 級證據(jù)),但也應(yīng)考慮外科手術(shù)干預(yù)。
最常見的中樞性神經(jīng)病理性痛(CP)由中樞性卒中后疼痛(CPSP)、脊髓損傷(SCI)或多發(fā)性硬化(MS)引起。
抗抑郁劑TCA 治療CPSP 有效,但TCA 治療SCI 疼痛的1個大規(guī)模試驗卻得出陰性結(jié)果,原因可能是治療劑量偏低且缺乏特異性評價指標(biāo)[7,66]。針對SCI 的RCT 顯示大劑量阿米替林(150 mg/d)較之苯海拉明和加巴噴丁(3 600 mg/d)能夠更有效地緩解伴有抑郁者的疼痛[67]。盡管研究有局限性,但提示TCA 可用于治療SCI 患者,特別是那些患有抑郁癥的患者。尚沒有開展SNRI 對CP 的RCT。
1 項多中心研究報道普瑞巴林對外傷性SCI 疼痛的療效[68],單中心研究則證實普瑞巴林可用于治療各種CP[20,69]。加巴噴丁和拉莫三嗪的研究結(jié)果不一致[7,43,67,70]。其他抗癲 藥物未發(fā)現(xiàn)有效[7,71](見表1)。
阿片類僅1 項研究比較了大劑量和小劑量的左啡諾對周圍性或中樞性NP 患者的療效[72]。1個RCT 發(fā)現(xiàn)曲馬多能減輕疼痛強度,但不能改善疼痛的影響,并且因多種不良反應(yīng)致43%的患者脫落(安慰劑組的脫落率為17%)[73]。
大麻兩項Ⅰ類研究報道大麻(四氫大麻酚,口腔黏膜噴霧,2.7 mg 的δ -9 -四氫大麻酚/2.5 mg大麻二酚)對MS 相關(guān)疼痛有效[7]。隨訪3年,發(fā)現(xiàn)90%的患者出現(xiàn)不良反應(yīng)(頭暈、口干、鎮(zhèn)靜、疲勞、胃腸道反應(yīng)、口腔不適),但無耐受性發(fā)生[74]。
其他小劑量美西律對SCI 疼痛無效。S -氯胺酮(S-ketamine)經(jīng)皮電離子透入療法對CP 無效[7,75]。
推薦推薦普瑞巴林(A 級證據(jù))、阿米替林(B級證據(jù))或加巴噴丁為CP 的一線治療藥物。曲馬多(B 級證據(jù))為二線藥物。在不需要長期治療的情況下,推薦強效阿片類(B 級證據(jù))為二線或三線用藥。拉莫三嗪可用于治療CPSP 或伴有輕觸誘發(fā)性痛覺異常的不完全脊髓損傷性SCI 疼痛(B 級證據(jù))。大麻(A 級證據(jù))僅在其他所有治療無效的情況下用于治療MS 相關(guān)性疼痛。
針對其他NP 的治療藥物的證據(jù)等級(見表2)。
癌性NP:A 級證據(jù)證實加巴噴丁有效(1個研究),B 級證據(jù)證明TCA和曲馬多有效,丙戊酸鈉無效[7,76,77]。外傷性NP:1 項多大型試驗顯示加巴噴丁對主要結(jié)局無效[78],但改善了數(shù)個次要結(jié)局;雖然有效反應(yīng)的預(yù)測因素尚有待確定,但加巴噴丁可能對某些亞組患者有益(A 級證據(jù))。B 級證據(jù)證實抗抑郁劑的療效,有報道肉毒毒素-A 有較,其他藥物卻無效或不一致結(jié)果[79,80]。神經(jīng)根病:加巴噴丁(A級證據(jù))、TCA和阿片類以及兩者的復(fù)合制劑(B 級證據(jù))無效或僅有輕微療效[81-83]?;弥?曲馬多和嗎啡有效(A 級證據(jù)),加巴噴丁的療效不一致[84,85]。多重病因NP:有效藥物是抗抑郁劑(安非他酮、TCA)、阿片類(左啡諾、美沙酮)和大麻[7,86-92]。
RCT 越來越多地評估疼痛的癥狀和體征[60],并提示不同藥物對不同性質(zhì)的NP(如灼痛、深部痛、發(fā)作性疼痛)有不同的療效[7,93,94]。一些藥物(TCA、普瑞巴林、大麻、利多卡因、文拉法辛、NMDA 拮抗劑)可減輕輕觸誘發(fā)的和(或)機械性痛覺異常[7,50,87,88,95]。雖事后分析顯示阿片類和利多卡因軟膏可能有療效的預(yù)示因素[79,96,97],但還沒有基于基線疼痛資料的用以查找有效性預(yù)測因素的RCT 設(shè)計(C 級證據(jù))。
NP 患者的生活質(zhì)量(QOL)、睡眠和情緒深受疼痛影響[98,99]。通常,藥物對疼痛的療效與QOL 的改善相關(guān)[100]。試驗證實度洛西汀、普瑞巴林和加巴噴丁對這些事件有益[7,40,99,101]。普瑞巴林和加巴噴丁改善睡眠的效果最為肯定[40,98],6 項研究顯示普瑞巴林改善QOL 或情緒的作用不佳。3個試驗報道TCA可改善QOL[40,90,102]。阿片類和曲馬多能減輕疼痛對睡眠的影響,但對QOL 的療效不一致[99];大麻可以改善QOL 或睡眠[44,45,87],但總體而言這些藥物對改善情緒無效[32,72,73,76,87]。
本修訂指南證實TCA(25~150 mg/d)、加巴噴丁(1 200~3 600 mg/d)和普瑞巴林(150~600 mg/d)為各種NP(除TN)的一線用藥,利多卡因軟膏為PHN,尤其是老年人的一線藥物(3 次/d)?;谧C據(jù),推薦SNRI(度洛西汀60~120 mg/d、文拉法辛150~225 mg/d)為痛性糖尿病性多發(fā)性神經(jīng)病的一線用藥。TCA 價格便宜[98],但在大劑量及在老年人使用時存在安全性問題,并且有對比研究提示TCA 療效不及加巴噴?。?0]。相比加巴噴丁,普瑞巴林具有藥代動力學(xué)優(yōu)勢(每日2 次給藥,療效呈劑量依賴性),但meta分析提示兩者的療效和耐受性相近。二線治療藥物包括曲馬多(200~400 mg/d)及辣椒素霜治療PHN。盡管強效阿片類對非癌性NP 的療效確切,但由于長期使用有發(fā)生濫用的潛在風(fēng)險,且目前仍然缺乏長期治療NP 的安全性研究,因此強效阿片類推薦作為二線/三線用藥。辣椒素貼劑對痛性HIV神經(jīng)病或PHN 有效(A 級證據(jù))。大麻推薦用于難治性病例(MS和周圍性NP,A 級證據(jù))。聯(lián)合用藥推薦用于對單一藥物反應(yīng)不佳的患者(加巴噴丁加阿片類或加TCA,A 級證據(jù))。
目前,對不同治療的選擇主要基于其各自的效益/風(fēng)險比及患者的臨床狀況(共病、禁忌證、其他治療)。近期對2 000 多例糖尿病性神經(jīng)病和PHN 的研究[103]顯示,可按患者的感覺特征進行亞組分類;基于感覺特征而非病因的分類方法,有助于最大限度地減少同一研究組別病理生理學(xué)的異質(zhì)性,提高對治療反應(yīng)[104,105]。
未來試驗的策略應(yīng)該是:①有效性應(yīng)基于標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化的結(jié)局[60],應(yīng)包括總體疼痛、相關(guān)癥狀和體征、QOL;②使用感覺檢查和特定的疼痛問卷對癥狀和體征進行詳細的描述以確定治療有效者的特征,有助于提高治療成功率;③使用統(tǒng)一的有害事件評估標(biāo)準(zhǔn);④開展大型的藥物對比研究;⑤需要更多的大型研究以確定聯(lián)合用藥的療效。
表1 常見神經(jīng)病理性痛藥物治療研究的證據(jù)分級和使用建議
表2 少見的神經(jīng)病理性痛的藥物治療研究的證據(jù)分級
附錄1
BDI,貝克抑郁自評問卷;BOCF,基線觀察推進法;BPI,簡明疼痛問卷;CGIC,臨床變化總體印象;HDRS,漢密爾頓抑郁量表;LANSS,利茲神經(jīng)病理性癥狀和體征量表;LOCF,末次觀測值結(jié)轉(zhuǎn)法;MDI,重癥抑郁問卷;MMSE,簡易智能狀態(tài)檢查;MPI,多維疼痛調(diào)查表;MPQ,Mc Gill 疼痛問卷;NIS,神經(jīng)病變損傷評分;NNT:需要治療的病例數(shù);NPS,神經(jīng)病理性痛量表;NPSI,神經(jīng)病理性痛癥狀問卷;NRS,數(shù)字疼痛分級量表(或Likert 量表);NS,無顯著性;NWC,選出詞的總數(shù);PDI,疼痛殘疾指數(shù);PHN,皰疹后神經(jīng)痛;PN,多發(fā)性神經(jīng)病;PGIC,患者對臨床變化總體印象;POMS,心境狀態(tài)量表;PPI,現(xiàn)時疼痛強度;QST,定量感覺檢查;SF-MPQ,Mc Gill 疼痛問卷簡表;SIP,疼痛影響程度量表;SF-36,醫(yī)療結(jié)局研究36 條目健康調(diào)查簡表(生活治療指標(biāo));STAI,斯皮爾伯格特質(zhì)焦慮量表;Trt,治療;VAS,視覺模擬量表;VRS,語言描述量表;vs.,比。
[1]Treede RD,Jensen TS,Campbell JN,et al.Neuropathic pain:redefinition and a grading system for clinical and research purposes[J].Neurology,2008,70:1630 -1635.
[2]Bouhassira D,Lantéri-Minet M,Attal N,et al.Prevalence of chronic pain with neuropathic characteristics in the general population[J].Pain,2008,136:380 -387.
[3]Torrance N,Smith BH,Bennett MI,et al.The epidemiology of chronic pain of predominantly neuropathic origin.Resultsfrom a general population survey[J].J Pain,2006,7:281 -289.
[4]Dworkin RH,O'Connor AB,Backonja M,et al.Pharmacologic management of neuropathic pain:evidence based recommendations[J].Pain,2007,132:237 -251.
[5]Finnerup NB,Jensen TS.Mechanisms of disease:mechanism-based classification of neuropathic pain-a critical analysis[J].Nat Clin Pract Neurol,2006,2:107 -115.
[6]Baron R.Mechanisms of disease:neuropathic pain:a clinical perspective[J].Nat Clin Pract Neurol,2006,2:95 -106.
[7]Attal N,Cruccu G,Haanp?? M,et al.EFNS guidelines on pharmacological treatment of neuropathic pain[J].Eur J Neurol,2006,13:1153 -1169.
[8]Brainin M,Barnes M,Baron JC,et al.Guidance for the preparation of neurological management guidelines by EFNS scientific task forces-revised recommendations[J].Eur J Neurol,2004,11:577-581.
[9]Saarto T,Wiffen PJ.Antidepressants for neuropathic pain[J].Cochrane Database Syst Rev,2007,4:CD005454.
[10]Finnerup NB,Otto M,McQuay HJ,et al.Algorithm for neuropathic pain treatment:an evidence based proposal[J].Pain,2005,118:289 -305.
[11]Kadiroglu AK,Sit D,Kayabasi H,et al.The effect of venlafaxine HCl on painful peripheral diabetic neuropathy in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus[J].J Diabetes Complications,2008,22:241 -245.
[12]Kajdasz DK,Iyengar S,Desaiah D,et al.Duloxetine for the management of diabetic peripheral neuropathic pain:evidence-based findings from post hoc analysis of three multicenter,randomized,double-blind,placebo-controlled,parallel-group studies[J].Clin Ther,2007,29 (Suppl):2536 -2546.
[13]Quilici S,Chancellor J,L?thgren M,et al.Meta-analysis of duloxetine vs.pregabalin and gabapentin in the treatment of diabetic peripheral neuropathic pain[J].BMC Neurol,2009,9:6.
[14]Skljarevski V,Desaiah D,Zhang Q,et al.Evaluating the maintenance of effect of duloxetine in patients with diabetic peripheral neuropathic pain[J].Diab Met Res Rev,2009,25:623 -631.
[15]Gahimer J,Wernicke J,Yalcin I,et al.A retrospective pooled analysis of duloxetine safety in 23,983 subjects[J].Curr Med Res Opin,2007,23:175 -184.
[16]Sultan A,Gaskell H,Derry S,et al.Duloxetine for painful diabetic neuropathy and fibromyalgia pain:systematic review of randomised trials[J].BMC Neurol,2008,8:29.
[17]Otto M,Bach FW,Jensen TS,et al.Escitalopram in painful polyneuropathy:a randomized,placebo-controlled,cross-over trial[J].Pain,2008,139:275 -283.
[18]Wiffen P,McQuay H,Edwards J,et al.Gabapentin for acute and chronic pain[J].Cochrane Database Syst Rev,2005,20:CD005452.
[19]Freeman R,Durso-Decruz E,Emir B.Efficacy,safety and tolerability of pregabalin treatment for painful diabetic peripheral neuropathy,findings from seven randomized controlled trials across a range of doses[J].Diabetes Care,2008,31:1448 -1454.
[20]Gilron I,Baley JM,Tu D,et al.Nortriptyline and gabapentin,alone and in combination for neuropathic pain:a double-blind,randomised controlled crossover trial[J].Lancet,2009,374:1252 -1261.
[21]Moore RA,Straube S,Wiffen PJ,et al.Pregabalin for acute and chronic pain in adults[J].Cochrane Database Syst Rev,2009,3:CD007076.
[22]Rauck RL,Shaibani A,Biton V,et al.Lacosamide in painful diabetic peripheral neuropathy:a phase 2 double-blind placebo-controlled study[J].Clin J Pain,2007,23:150 -158.
[23]Wymer JP,Simpson J,Sen J,et al.Efficacy and safety of lacosamide in diabetic neuropathic pain:an 18 weeks double blind placebo controlled trial of fixed doses regimens[J].Clin J Pain,2009,25:376 -385.
[24]Dogra S,Beydoun S,Mazzola J,et al.Oxcarbazepine in painful diabetic neuropathy:a randomized,placebo-controlled study[J].Eur J Pain,2005,9:543 -554.
[25]Grosskopf J,Mazzola J,Wan Y,et al.A randomized,placebo-controlled study of oxcarbazepine in painful diabetic neuropathy[J].Acta Neurol Scand,2006,114:177 -180.
[26]Beydoun A,Shaibani A,Hopwood M,et al.Oxcarbazepine in painful diabetic neuropathy:results of a dose-ranging study[J].Acta Neurol Scand,2006,113:395 -404.
[27]Vinik AI,Tuchman M,Safirstein B,et al.Lamotrigine for treatment of pain associated with diabetic neuropathy:results of two randomized,double-blind,placebo-controlled studies[J].Pain,2007,128:169 -179.
[28]Atli A,Dogra S.Zonisamide in the treatment of painful diabetic neuropathy:a randomized,double-blind,placebo-controlled pilot study[J].Pain Med,2005,6:225 -234.
[29]Shaibani A,F(xiàn)ares S,Selam JL,et al.Lacosamide in painful diabetic neuropathy:an 18-week double-blind placebo-controlled trial[J].J Pain,2009,10:818 -828.
[30]Katz J,F(xiàn)innerup NB,Dworkin RH.Clinical outcome in neuropathic pain :relationship to study characteristics[J].Neurology,2008,28:263 -272.
[31]Eisenberg E,McNicol ED,Carr DB.Efficacy of muopioid agonists in the treatment of evoked neuropathic pain:systematic review of randomized controlled trials[J].Eur J Pain,2006,10:667 -676.
[32]Hollingshead J,Dühmke RM,Cornblath DR.Tramadol for neuropathic pain[J].Cochrane Database Syst Rev,2006,3:CD003726.
[33]Freeman R,Raskin P,Hewitt DJ,et al.Randomized study of tramadol/acetaminophen versus placebo in painful diabetic peripheral neuropathy[J].Curr Med Res Opin,2007,23:147 -161.
[34]Portenoy RK,F(xiàn)arrar JT,Backonja MM,et al.Longterm use of controlled-release oxycodone for noncancer pain:results of a 3-year registry study[J].Clin J Pain,2007,23:287 -299.
[35]Yuan RY,Sheu JJ,Yu JM,et al.Botulinum toxin for diabetic neuropathic pain:a randomized double-blind crossover trial[J].Neurology,2009,72:1473 -1478.
[36]Yuen KC,Baker NR,Rayman G.Treatment of chronic painful diabetic neuropathy with isosorbide dinitrate spray:a double-blind placebo-controlled cross-over study[J].Diabetes Care,2002,25:1699 -1703.
[37]Agrawal RP,Choudhary R,Sharma P,et al.Glyceryl trinitrate spray in the management of painful diabetic neuropathy:a randomized double blind placebo controlled cross-over study[J].Diabetes Res Clin Pract,2007,77:161 -167.
[38]Rowbotham MC,RachelDuan W,Thomas J,et al.A randomized,double-blind,placebocontrolled trial evaluating the efficacy and safety of ABT-594 in patients with diabetic peripheral neuropathic pain[J].Pain,2009,146:245 -252.
[39]Sindrup SH,Graf A,Sfikas N.The NK1-receptor antagonist TKA731 in painful diabetic neuropathy:a randomised,controlled trial[J].Eur J Pain,2006,10:567 -571.
[40]Gilron I,Bailey JM,Tu D,et al.Morphine,gabapentin,or their combination for neuropathic pain[J].N Engl J Med,2005,352:1324 -1334.
[41]Hanna M,O_Brien C,Wilson MC.Prolonged-release oxycodone enhances the effects of existing gabapentin therapy in painful diabetic neuropathy patients[J].Eur J Pain,2008,12:804 -813.
[42]Schifitto G,Yiannoutsos CT,Simpson DM,et al.A placebo-controlled study of memantine for the treatment of human immunodeficiency virus-associated sensory neuropathy[J].J Neurovirol,2006,12:328 -331.
[43]Wiffen PJ,Rees J.Lamotrigine for acute and chronic pain[J].Cochrane Database Syst Rev,2007,2:CD006044.
[44]Abrams DI,Jay CA,Shade SB,et al.Cannabis in painful HIV-associated sensory neuropathy:a randomized placebo-controlled trial[J].Neurology,2007,68:515 -521.
[45]Ellis RJ,Toperoff W,Vaida F,et al.Smoked medicinal cannabis for neuropathic pain in HIV:a randomized,crossover clinical trial[J].Neuropsychopharmacology,2009,34:672 -680.
[46]Simpson DM,Brown S,Tobias J,et al.Controlled trial of high-concentration capsaicin patch for treatment of painful HIV neuropathy[J].Neurology,2008,70:2305 -2313.
[47]Noto C,Pappagallo M,Szallasi A.NGX-4010,a highconcentration capsaicin dermal patch for lasting relief of peripheral neuropathic pain[J].Curr Opin Investig Drugs,2009,10:702 -710.
[48]Eisenberg E,McNicol ED,Carr DB.Efficacy and safety of opioid agonists in the treatment of neuropathic pain of nonmalignant origin:systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials[J].JAMA,2005,293:3043 -3052.
[49]Hempenstall K,Nurmikko TJ,Johnson RW,et al.Analgesic therapy in postherpetic neuralgia:a quantitative systematic review[J].PLOS Medicine,2005,2:e164.
[50]Rowbotham MC,Reisner LA,Davies PS,et al.Treatment response in antidepressant-naive postherpetic neuralgia patients:doubleblind,randomized trial[J].J Pain,2005,6:741 -746.
[51]Irving G,Jensen M,Cramer M,et al.Efficacy and tolerability of gastric-retentive gabapentin for the treatment of postherpetic neuralgia[J].Clin J Pain,2009,25:185 -192.
[52]Chandra K,Shafiq N,Pandhi P,et al.Gabapentin versus nortriptyline in post-herpetic neuralgia patients:a randomized,double-blind clinical trial-the GONIP Trial[J].Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther,2006,44:358 -363.
[53]Khaliq W,Alam S,Puri N.Topical lidocaine for the treatment of postherpetic neuralgia[J].Cochrane Database Syst Rev,2007,18:CD004846.
[54]Binder A,Bruxelle J,Rogers P,et al.Topical 5% lidocaine (lignocaine)medicated plaster treatment for post-herpetic neuralgia[J].Clin Drug Investig 2009,29:393 -408.
[55]Baron R,Mayoral V,Leijon G,et al.5% lidocaine medicated plaster versus pregabalin in post-herpetic neuralgia and diabetic polyneuropathy:an open-label,non-inferiority two-stage RCT study[J].Curr Med Res Opin,2009,27:1663 -1676.
[56]Hans G,Sabatowski R,Binder A,et al.Efficacy and tolerability of a 5% lidocaine medicated plaster for the topical treatment of postherpetic neuralgia:results of a long-term study[J].Curr Med Res Opin,2009,25:1295 -1305.
[57]Backonja M,Wallace MS,Blonsky ER,et al.NGX-4010,a high concentration capsaicin patch,for the treatment of postherpetic neuralgia:a randomised,double-blind study[J].Lancet Neurol,2009,7:1106 -1112.
[58]Shackelford S,Rauck R,Quessy S,et al.A randomized,doubleblind,placebo controlled trial of a selective COX2 inhibitor GW406381 in patients with postherpetic neuralgia[J].J Pain,2009,10:654 -660.
[59]Cruccu G,Truini A.Trigeminal neuralgia and orofacial pains.In:Pappagallo M,ed.The Neurological Basis of Pain[M].New York:McGraw Hill,2005:401 -414.
[60]Cruccu G,Sommer C,Anand P,et al.EFNS guidelines on neuropathic pain assessment:revised 2009[J].Eur J Neurol,2010,17:1010 -1018.
[61]Gronseth G,Cruccu G,Alksne J,et al.Practice parameter:the diagnostic evaluation and treatment of trigeminal neuralgia (an evidence-based review):report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology,and the European Federation of Neurological Societies[J].Neurology,2008,71:1183 -1190.
[62]Cruccu G,Gronseth G,Alksne J,et al.AAN-EFNS guidelines on trigeminal neuralgia management[J].Eur J Neurol,2008,15:1013 -1028.
[63]He L,Wu B,Zhou M.Non-antiepileptic drugs for trigeminal neuralgia[J].Cochrane Database Syst Rev,2006,3:CD004029.
[64]Nurmikko T,Cruccu G.Botulinum toxin for trigeminal neuralgia[J].Eur J Neurol,2009,16:e104.
[65]Lemos L,F(xiàn)lores S,Oliveira P,et al.Gabapentin supplemented with ropivacaine block of trigger points improves pain control and quality of life in trigeminal neuralgia patients when compared with gabapentin alone[J].Clin J Pain,2008,24:64 -75.
[66]Klit H,F(xiàn)innerup NB,Jensen TS.Central post-stroke pain:clinical characteristics,pathophysiology,and management[J].Lancet Neurol,2009,9:857 -868.
[67]Siddall PJ,Cousins MJ,Otte A,et al.Pregabalin in central neuropathic pain associated with spinal cord injury:a placebo-controlled trial[J].Neurology,2006,67:1792 -1800.
[68]Vranken JH,Dijkgraaf MG,Kruis MR,et al.Pregabalin in patients with central neuropathic pain:a randomized,doubleblind,placebocontrolled trial of a flexible-dose regimen[J].Pain,2008,136:150 -157.
[69]Rintala DH,Holmes SA,Courtade D,et al.Comparison of the effectiveness of amitriptyline and gabapentin on chronic neuropathic pain in persons with spinal cord injury[J].Arch Phys Med Rehab,2007,88:1547 -1560.
[70]Breuer B,Pappagallo M,Knotkova H,et al.A randomized,doubleblind,placebo-controlled,two-period,crossover,pilot trial of lamotrigine in patients with central pain due to multiple sclerosis[J].Clin Ther,2007,29:2022 -2030.
[71]Finnerup NB,Grydehoj J,Bong J,et al.Levetiracetam in spinal cord injury pain:a randomized controlled trial[J].Spinal cord,2009,47:861 -867.
[72]Rowbotham MC,Twilling L,Davies PS,et al.Oral opioid therapy for chronic peripheral and central neuropathic pain[J].New Engl J Med,2003,348:1223 -1232.
[73]Norrbrink C,Lundeberg T.Tramadol in neuropathic pain after spinal cord injury:a randomized double blind placebo-controlled trial[J].Clin J Pain,2009,25:177 -184.
[74]Rog DJ,Nurmikko TJ,Young CA.Oromucosal delta9-tetrahydro cannabinol cannabidiol for neuropathic pain associated with multiple sclerosis:an uncontrolled,openlabel,2-year extension trial[J].Clin Ther,2007,29:2068 -2079.
[75]Vranken JH,Dijkgraaf MG,Kruis MR,et al.Iontophoretic administration of S(+)-ketamine in patients with intractable central pain:a placebo-controlled trial[J].Pain,2005,118:224 -231.
[76]Arbaiza D,Vidal O.Tramadol in the treatment of neuropathic cancer pain:a double-blind,placebo-controlled study[J].Clin Drug Investig,2007,27:75 -83.
[77]Hardy JR,Rees EA,Gwilliam B,et al.A phase II study to establish the efficacy and toxicity of sodium valproate in patients with cancerrelated neuropathic pain[J].J Pain Symptom Manage,2001,21:204 -209.
[78]Gordh TE,Stubhaug A,Jensen TS,et al.Gabapentin in traumatic nerve injury pain:a randomized,double-blind,placebo-controlled,cross-over,multi-center study[J].Pain,2008,138:255 -266.
[79]Ranoux D,Attal N,Morain F,et al.Botulinum toxin a induces direct analgesic effects in neuropathic pain:a double blind placebo controlled study[J].Ann Neurol,2008,64:274 -283.
[80]Vilholm OJ,Cold S,Rasmussen L,et al.Effect of levetiracetam on the postmastectomy pain syndrome[J].Eur J Neurol,2008,15:851 -857.
[81]Khoromi S,Patsalides A,Parada S,et al.Topiramate in chronic lumbar radicular pain[J].J Pain,2005,6:829 -836.
[82]Khoromi S,Cui L,Nackers L,et al.Morphine,nortriptyline and their combination vs.placebo in patients with chronic lumbar root pain[J].Pain,2007,130:66 -75.
[83]pdf.clinicalstudyresults.org/documents/company-study 4268.
[84]Wu CL,Agarwal S,Tella PK,et al.Morphine versus mexiletine for treatment of postamputation pain:a randomized,placebo-controlled,crossover trial[J].Anesthesiology,2008,109:289 -296.
[85]Wilder-Smith CH,Hill LT,Laurent S.Postamputation pain and sensory changes in treatment-naive patients:characteristics and responses to treatment with tramadol,amitriptyline,and placebo[J].Anesthesiology,2005,103:619 -628.
[86]Karst M,Salim K,Burstein S,et al.Analgesic effect of the synthetic cannabinoid CT-3 on chronic neuropathic pain:a randomized controlled trial[J].JAMA,2003,290:1757 -1762.
[87]Nurmikko TJ,Serpell MG,Hoggart B,et al.Sativex successfully treats neuropathic pain characterised by allodynia:a randomised,double-blind,placebo-controlled clinical trial[J].Pain,2007,133:210 -220.
[88]Yucel A,Ozyalcin S,Koknel Talu G,et al.The effect of venlafaxine on ongoing and experimentally induced pain in neuropathic pain patients:a double blind,placebo controlled study[J].Eur J Pain,2005,9:407 -416.
[89]Frank B,Serpell MG,Hughes J,et al.Comparison of analgesic effects and patient tolerability of nabilone and dihydrocodeine for chronic neuropathic pain:randomised,crossover,double blind study[J].BMJ,2008,336:199 -201.
[90]Ho KY,Huh BK,White WD,et al.Topical amitriptyline versus lidocaine in the treatment of neuropathic pain[J].Clin J Pain,2008,24:51 -55.
[91]Silver M,Blum D,Grainger J.Double blind placebocontrolled trial of lamotrigine in combination with other medications for neuropathic pain[J].J Pain Symptom Manage,2007,34:446 -454.
[92]Yelland MJ,Poulos CJ,Pillans PI,et al.N-of-1 randomized trials to assess the efficacy of gabapentin for chronic neuropathic pain[J].Pain Med,2009,10:754 -761.
[93]Jensen MP,F(xiàn)riedman M,Bonzo D,et al.The validity of the neuropathic pain scale for assessing diabetic neuropathic pain in a clinical trial[J].Clin J Pain,2006,22:97 -103.
[94]Jensen MP,Chiang Y-K,Wu J.Assessment of pain quality in a clinical trial of gabapentin extended release for postherpetic neuralgia[J].Clin J Pain,2009,25:286 -292.
[95]Stacey BR,Barrett JA,Whalen E,et al.Pregabalin for postherpetic neuralgia:placebo-controlled trial of fixed and flexible dosing regimens on allodynia and time to onset of pain relief[J].J Pain,2008,9:1006 -1017.
[96]Edwards RR,Haythornthwaite JA,Tella P,et al.Basal heat pain thresholds predict opioid anal-gesia in patients with postherpetic neuralgia[J].Anesthesiology,2006,104:1243 -1248.
[97]Wasner G,Kleinert A,Binder A,et al.Postherpetic neuralgia:topical lidocaine is effective in nociceptor deprived skin[J].J Neurol,2005,252:677 -686.
[98]Jensen MP,Chodroff MJ,Dworkin RH.The impact of neuropathic pain on health-related quality of life:review and implications[J].Neurology,2007,68:1178 -1182.
[99]O'Connor AB.Neuropathic pain.Quality-of-life impact,costs and cost effectiveness of therapy[J].Pharmacoeconomics,2009,27:95 -112.
[100]Deshpande MA,Holden RR,Gilron I.The impact of therapy on quality of life and mood in neuropathic pain:what is the effect of pain reduction[J].Anesth Analg,2006,102:1473 -1479.
[101]Armstrong DG,Chappell AS,Le TK,et al.Duloxetine for the management of diabetic peripheral neuropathic pain:evaluation of functional outcomes[J].Pain Med,2007,8:410 -418.
[102]Otto M,Bach FW,Jensen TS,et al.Health-related quality of life and its predictive role for analgesic effect in patients with painful polyneuropathy[J].Eur J Pain,2007,11:572 -578.
[103]Baron R,T?lle TR,Gockel U,et al.A cross-sectional cohort survey in 2100 patients with painful diabetic neuropathy and postherpetic neuralgia:differences in demographic data and sensory symptoms[J].Pain,2009,146:34 -40.
[104]Cruccu G,Truini A.Sensory profiles:a new strategy for selecting patients in treatment trials for neuropathic pain[J].Pain,2009,146:5 -6.
[105]Attal N,F(xiàn)ermanian C,F(xiàn)ermanian J,et al.Neuropathic pain:are there distinct subtypes depending on the aetiology or anatomical lesion[J].Pain,2008,138:343 -353.