葉初升 馮賀霞
摘要 中國(guó)經(jīng)濟(jì)快速增長(zhǎng)的同時(shí),城鄉(xiāng)居民收入以及教育、醫(yī)療、社會(huì)保障等物質(zhì)生活條件差距不斷擴(kuò)大,但一些實(shí)證分析表明,中國(guó)農(nóng)村居民的主觀幸福感卻強(qiáng)于城鎮(zhèn)居民。本文將這種悖論式的事實(shí)置于城鄉(xiāng)二元經(jīng)濟(jì)社會(huì)結(jié)構(gòu)現(xiàn)實(shí)之中,運(yùn)用Order Probit模型對(duì)中國(guó)綜合社會(huì)調(diào)查(CGSS)數(shù)據(jù)進(jìn)行了實(shí)證分析。結(jié)果表明,一方面,城鄉(xiāng)幸福悖論主要源于城鄉(xiāng)居民不同的主觀心態(tài):控制絕對(duì)收入、相對(duì)收入及個(gè)體特征等相關(guān)變量之后,城市居民并不比農(nóng)村居民更幸福,然而,一旦加入城鄉(xiāng)居民對(duì)“命運(yùn)”、“家境”和“進(jìn)取心”等主觀心態(tài),城市居民幸福感會(huì)高于農(nóng)村居民幸福感。另一方面,如果控制包括主觀心態(tài)在內(nèi)的其他條件,在那些絕對(duì)收入超過16 013.7元的居民中,農(nóng)村居民幸福感要強(qiáng)于城市居民;當(dāng)絕對(duì)收入低于16 013.7元時(shí),城市居民仍然比農(nóng)村居民幸福。分析結(jié)果啟示我們,現(xiàn)代化、工業(yè)化、城市化都只是發(fā)展的路徑而非發(fā)展目的,城市化進(jìn)程有可能是建造“幸福圍城”的過程,從而違背城市化發(fā)展的基本初衷。就發(fā)展的終極目的而言,城市化也不是發(fā)展的唯一路徑,增加農(nóng)民收入、為農(nóng)民提供均等化的公共基礎(chǔ)服務(wù),在農(nóng)村同樣能增強(qiáng)人們的福祉。
關(guān)鍵詞 主觀幸福感;城鄉(xiāng)幸福悖論;城鄉(xiāng)二元結(jié)構(gòu);城市化
中圖分類號(hào) F061.3
文獻(xiàn)標(biāo)識(shí)碼 A
文章編號(hào) 1002-2104(2014)06-0016-06
doi:10.3969/j.issn.1002-2104.2014.06.003
改革開放以來,中國(guó)經(jīng)濟(jì)快速增長(zhǎng)的同時(shí),城鄉(xiāng)居民收入差距不斷擴(kuò)大,農(nóng)村居民人均純收入與城鎮(zhèn)居民人均可支配收入的差距,由1978年的182.7元上升到2010年的1.3萬(wàn)元。如果把城市居民收入中一些非貨幣因素,如住房、教育、醫(yī)療、社會(huì)保障等各種社會(huì)福利考慮在內(nèi),城鄉(xiāng)居民的生活質(zhì)量、福利水平差距則更大。但是,許多實(shí)證分析表明,中國(guó)農(nóng)村居民的主觀幸福感卻強(qiáng)于城鎮(zhèn)居民[1-2]。城鄉(xiāng)居民物質(zhì)生活水平與主觀幸福感之間真的存在這種此長(zhǎng)彼消?或者說,真的存在城鄉(xiāng)幸福悖論嗎?如果答案是肯定的,農(nóng)民為什么還要擠進(jìn)城市?難道城市是幸福的“圍城”?發(fā)展的根本目標(biāo)在于促進(jìn)公民幸福。在中國(guó)倡導(dǎo)新型工業(yè)化、信息化、城鎮(zhèn)化、農(nóng)業(yè)現(xiàn)代化協(xié)調(diào)同步發(fā)展的時(shí)代背景下,從發(fā)展的終極目標(biāo)去反思和分析這些問題具有重要的現(xiàn)實(shí)意義。
為了回答問題,我們使用中國(guó)綜合社會(huì)調(diào)查(CGSS) 2005、2006、2008三年數(shù)據(jù)(很可惜2010數(shù)據(jù)尚未公開),運(yùn)用Order Probit模型進(jìn)行了初步分析。結(jié)果表明,在控制了收入、相對(duì)收入及人口統(tǒng)計(jì)特征等變量后,2006年數(shù)據(jù)顯示存在顯著的城鄉(xiāng)幸福悖論,而從2005、2008年數(shù)據(jù)中雖然可以觀察到城鄉(xiāng)幸福悖論的跡象,但在統(tǒng)計(jì)上并不顯著。為了不至于由此簡(jiǎn)單得出“是否存在城鄉(xiāng)幸福悖論取決于時(shí)間與調(diào)查樣本”這樣的模糊結(jié)論,本文專注于2006年數(shù)據(jù)的分析,希望仔細(xì)考察城鄉(xiāng)幸福悖論背后的原因,究竟是什么因素侵蝕了更好的城市物質(zhì)生活給人們帶來的幸福效應(yīng)。
本文第二部分考察相關(guān)研究文獻(xiàn),從中吸取思想營(yíng)養(yǎng),并為我們的實(shí)證分析尋找新的突破方向;第三部分是模型、數(shù)據(jù)及相關(guān)變量的說明;第四部分對(duì)實(shí)證結(jié)果進(jìn)行分析;第五部分則是全文的總結(jié)和政策建議。
1 文獻(xiàn)述評(píng)
幸福問題是人類社會(huì)古老而常新的研究論題之一,引起心理學(xué)、社會(huì)學(xué)、經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)等眾多學(xué)科的共同關(guān)注。在經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)領(lǐng)域,學(xué)者們更關(guān)注收入、失業(yè)、通貨膨脹等客觀條件對(duì)幸福感的影響。Easterlin[3]的實(shí)證研究表明,一方面,在一國(guó)內(nèi)部,富人確實(shí)比窮人更加幸福,但隨著時(shí)間的流逝,快速增長(zhǎng)的人均GDP(或GNP)并沒有相應(yīng)地提升居民的幸福感;另一方面,跨國(guó)比較研究并沒有顯示富國(guó)比窮國(guó)更幸福。自此,人們將幸福不隨收入增長(zhǎng)而增加的現(xiàn)象稱為“幸福收入悖論”或“Easterlin悖論”。Frey and Stutzer[4]和Ng[5]的研究也表明,收入與幸福的確存在負(fù)相關(guān)關(guān)系,從而進(jìn)一步支持了“Easterlin悖論”。
尋找對(duì)“幸福收入悖論”的合理解釋,成為經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家們關(guān)注的焦點(diǎn)之一。一些研究表明,在收入尚未滿足基本需求的水平時(shí),收入與幸福感正相關(guān),當(dāng)收入超過基本需求水平之后,收入和幸福的正相關(guān)性將不復(fù)存在[6-7]。另一些學(xué)者認(rèn)為,收入通過非收入因素間接影響幸福感,收入與幸福之間的弱相關(guān)性,可能是因?yàn)楹鲆暳诉@種間接效應(yīng)[8-9]。一些文獻(xiàn)也注意到人口特征、社會(huì)環(huán)境(包括民主和社會(huì)條件)對(duì)幸福感的影響[6,10]。
關(guān)注收入、失業(yè)、通貨膨脹等客觀物質(zhì)條件對(duì)幸福感的影響,一直是經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)研究幸福問題的重要路徑,我們不妨將其稱之為研究幸福問題的客觀路徑。當(dāng)人們發(fā)現(xiàn)外在的客觀因素對(duì)幸福感的影響不甚顯著時(shí),許多學(xué)者逐漸轉(zhuǎn)向以主觀心理因素解釋幸福的差異,即研究幸福問題的主觀路徑。從現(xiàn)有的文獻(xiàn)看,研究幸福問題的主觀路徑有兩個(gè)切入點(diǎn):其一,強(qiáng)調(diào)比較心理或攀比心理[11-12]。其二,強(qiáng)調(diào)適應(yīng)性心理[4,13]。
近年來,我國(guó)經(jīng)濟(jì)快速增長(zhǎng)而城鄉(xiāng)居民幸福感并未相應(yīng)增強(qiáng)這一事實(shí)為國(guó)內(nèi)許多學(xué)者所關(guān)注[1-2,14-15]。也有學(xué)者關(guān)注我國(guó)城鄉(xiāng)幸福感差異問題,其研究思路無(wú)外乎兩種:或者在回歸中通過戶籍項(xiàng),或者直接進(jìn)行樣本分組,關(guān)注的重點(diǎn)是城鄉(xiāng)收入或其他客觀物質(zhì)方面的差異對(duì)城鄉(xiāng)幸福居民幸福感產(chǎn)生的不同影響。比如,羅楚亮[1]通過城鄉(xiāng)樣本分組的方法,對(duì)我國(guó)城鄉(xiāng)幸福差異問題進(jìn)行了詳盡的分析。他認(rèn)為,較低的收入預(yù)期是農(nóng)村居民幸福感較高的主要原因。
從現(xiàn)有研究文獻(xiàn)中,我們可以形成兩個(gè)基本判斷,從而也啟示我們關(guān)于城鄉(xiāng)幸福悖論進(jìn)一步研究的方向:
第一,總體而言,經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)關(guān)于幸福問題的研究主要是圍繞“Easterli悖論”展開,關(guān)注的焦點(diǎn)是縱向上的幸福收入悖論問題。仔細(xì)反思Easterlin[3]的研究結(jié)論,不難發(fā)現(xiàn),“Easterlin悖論”的含義是雙重的:首先,在一個(gè)經(jīng)濟(jì)體之內(nèi)的,就縱向的歷時(shí)態(tài)而言,幸福并不是隨收入的增長(zhǎng)而增加;其次,在不同經(jīng)濟(jì)體之間,就橫向的截面而言,國(guó)民的幸福感并不隨著富裕程度的提高而增加。從這個(gè)角度看,關(guān)于“Easterlin悖論”的解釋絕大部分是針對(duì)第一層面即縱向上的幸福收入悖論問題,而對(duì)第二層即橫截面上的幸福悖論問題關(guān)注較少。
由于我國(guó)特殊的城鄉(xiāng)二元結(jié)構(gòu),農(nóng)村居民不僅在收入上低于城市居民,在賦權(quán)和發(fā)展機(jī)會(huì)方面與城市居民相差甚遠(yuǎn),再加上戶籍限制,使得城鄉(xiāng)分割為“富”與“窮”兩個(gè)截然不同的社會(huì)系統(tǒng)。中國(guó)城鄉(xiāng)幸福悖論更多的是橫截面上“Easterlin悖論”,這既是我們對(duì)研究對(duì)象的一種基本判斷,也構(gòu)成本文在研究視角上的一種創(chuàng)新。
第二,從關(guān)注影響幸福的客觀因素到強(qiáng)調(diào)人們的主觀心理,研究幸福問題的兩個(gè)路徑彼此交融。幸福感是人們?cè)u(píng)價(jià)自身的生活質(zhì)量而產(chǎn)生的主觀感受,它依賴于一定的客觀外在事實(shí),更與主觀心理密切相關(guān)。
在中國(guó),城鄉(xiāng)二元結(jié)構(gòu)不僅表現(xiàn)在經(jīng)濟(jì)社會(huì)生活的物質(zhì)方面,重要的是在物質(zhì)生活基礎(chǔ)上形成的彼此迥異的城鄉(xiāng)生活方式、精神文化以及居民的生活心態(tài)與價(jià)值觀念?;诔青l(xiāng)二元社會(huì)經(jīng)濟(jì)結(jié)構(gòu)的客觀現(xiàn)實(shí),我們將影響幸福的客觀因素、人生態(tài)度因素納入模型中,并使其與戶籍項(xiàng)發(fā)生交互作用,以分解客觀因素、以及人生態(tài)度因素對(duì)居民幸福感的不同影響,以及這些影響在城鄉(xiāng)之間的差異,這是本文區(qū)別于現(xiàn)有文獻(xiàn)的又一個(gè)創(chuàng)新。
2 模型、變量與數(shù)據(jù)
主觀幸福感是人們對(duì)自身目前生活質(zhì)量進(jìn)行積極的評(píng)價(jià)[16]。幸福感的測(cè)量一般是通過問卷調(diào)查的方式,根據(jù)受訪者自我報(bào)告的幸福程度進(jìn)行基數(shù)賦值。被解釋變量主觀幸福感是從1到5的序數(shù)變量,相鄰選項(xiàng)之間存在不可比性,因此,直接使用最小二乘法(OLS)有欠妥當(dāng),本文采用有序概率模型(Ordered Probit Model)分析我國(guó)城鄉(xiāng)居民的幸福感。
人生態(tài)度是人們?cè)谏顚?shí)踐中形成的關(guān)于人生問題的一種穩(wěn)定的心理傾向和基本意愿。長(zhǎng)期以來,我國(guó)城鄉(xiāng)二元社會(huì)經(jīng)濟(jì)結(jié)構(gòu)以及城鄉(xiāng)生活水平差距的客觀存在,加上農(nóng)村相對(duì)封閉的環(huán)境,農(nóng)村逐漸形成一種區(qū)別于城市的“亞文化”。當(dāng)幾代人的努力都無(wú)法沖破“農(nóng)”之藩籬、無(wú)法改變自身生活處境的時(shí)候,許多農(nóng)村居民在主觀上或積極或被動(dòng)地接受了這種亞文化,形成了一種特殊的心態(tài),亦即被一些人稱之為“農(nóng)民心理”的東西。這種心理通過文化的傳承而獲得的,它潛藏于心靈深處,構(gòu)成人生態(tài)度的重要組成部分。因此,本文用命運(yùn)、家境及進(jìn)取心在事業(yè)成功的重要性反映不同的人生態(tài)度,并以此視角分析城鄉(xiāng)幸福悖論。變量具體描述性統(tǒng)計(jì)見表1。
3 實(shí)證結(jié)果與分析
我們分別運(yùn)用2005、2006、2008年CGSS調(diào)查數(shù)據(jù),將城鄉(xiāng)居民幸福感對(duì)收入等變量進(jìn)行回歸(見表2),我們發(fā)現(xiàn),在控制絕對(duì)收入、相對(duì)收入及人口統(tǒng)計(jì)特征等變量后,在2006年的數(shù)據(jù)回歸中城市戶籍項(xiàng)顯著為負(fù),說明2006年存在顯著的城鄉(xiāng)幸福悖論。而2005、2008年雖然存在城鄉(xiāng)幸福悖論的跡象(回歸系數(shù)為負(fù)),但在統(tǒng)計(jì)上并不顯著。
為了不至于由此簡(jiǎn)單得出城鄉(xiāng)幸福感差異因時(shí)間和調(diào)查樣本差異而不同這樣的模糊結(jié)論,本文專注于分析2006年數(shù)據(jù),希望仔細(xì)考察城鄉(xiāng)幸福悖論背后的原因。
為了觀察絕對(duì)收入、相對(duì)收入及預(yù)期收入在城鄉(xiāng)社會(huì)經(jīng)濟(jì)二元結(jié)構(gòu)中對(duì)幸福感所產(chǎn)生的不同效應(yīng),本文增加了城市戶籍與絕對(duì)收入、相對(duì)收入及預(yù)期收入交互項(xiàng);為了觀察居民的生活態(tài)度在城鄉(xiāng)二元社會(huì)中對(duì)幸福感所產(chǎn)生的不同效應(yīng),我們?cè)谀P椭羞€增加了城市戶籍與生活態(tài)度變量的交互項(xiàng)。
在模型(1)、(2)、(3)中,人口特征變量對(duì)居民幸福感的影響有著與我們預(yù)期相一致的方向,且在統(tǒng)計(jì)上是顯著的。而且,主要的人口特征變量的回歸系數(shù)甚至表現(xiàn)出驚人的穩(wěn)定性。這也從一個(gè)側(cè)面說明了我們的模型設(shè)置的可靠性與回歸分析的穩(wěn)健性。
模型(1)的回歸結(jié)果表明,控制了預(yù)期收入變量后,雖然預(yù)期收入對(duì)被解釋變量即城鄉(xiāng)居民幸福感具有顯著的積極影響,但是,此時(shí)虛擬變量“城市”的回歸系數(shù)仍然為負(fù)(當(dāng)然在統(tǒng)計(jì)上并不顯著),因此,我們?nèi)匀徊荒芘懦青l(xiāng)幸福悖論的存在。
顯著為正。這正是本文關(guān)注的焦點(diǎn)。這就是說,在控制了收入變量、人口特征變量之后,如果城鄉(xiāng)居民有著相同的主觀心態(tài)度,城市人口的幸福感會(huì)高于農(nóng)村居民幸福感。
模型(3)的進(jìn)一步分析表明,人生態(tài)度對(duì)生活在中國(guó)城鄉(xiāng)二元結(jié)構(gòu)的居民幸福感,所產(chǎn)生的效應(yīng)是不同的。
其一,農(nóng)民越是“認(rèn)命”,其幸福感越是增強(qiáng),“認(rèn)命”每上升一級(jí),農(nóng)村居民幸福感上升的概率增加1.44%;城市居民“認(rèn)命”每上升一級(jí),反而會(huì)導(dǎo)致幸福感以4.67%(0.014 4-0.061 1)的概率下降。在農(nóng)村,祖祖輩輩依靠、依戀大自然,社會(huì)關(guān)系自成一體、相對(duì)封閉,“聽天由命”的淡然心態(tài)油然而生。這種心態(tài)是淡然的,同時(shí)也是積極的、由衷的、樂觀的,它恰好能夠給農(nóng)村居民幸福感帶來積極的效應(yīng),正所謂“憨人自有憨?!薄T诔鞘?,社會(huì)經(jīng)濟(jì)急劇變化、生活節(jié)奏急促逼仄,很難容得下居民“聽天由命”那種淡然而積極樂觀的心態(tài)。
其二,相比城市居民而言,農(nóng)民更看重家境,農(nóng)村居民對(duì)家境重要性的認(rèn)知每上升一級(jí),其幸福感上升的概率提升5.54%;而城市居民如果看重家境,他的幸福感以0.49%(0.055 4-0.060 3)的概率下降。我們可以從兩個(gè)方面解釋這一結(jié)果:一方面,城市和農(nóng)村家庭在結(jié)構(gòu)、規(guī)模、關(guān)系等方面的不同。另一方面,在二元社會(huì)結(jié)構(gòu)下,城市與農(nóng)村不同的社會(huì)環(huán)境,使得個(gè)人發(fā)展與家庭境況的關(guān)聯(lián)程度不同。因此,當(dāng)問及“在您看來,家境在事業(yè)成功中重要性是怎樣的?”時(shí),在更為傳統(tǒng)的農(nóng)村社會(huì),在控制其他變量的情況,農(nóng)民的幸福感越高。然而,在城市,在原本個(gè)人努力對(duì)于個(gè)人發(fā)展更為緊要而家庭因素不是那么凸現(xiàn)的現(xiàn)代社會(huì),如果城市居民非常看重家境在個(gè)人事業(yè)成功中的作用,所流露的更多信息是被訪者在現(xiàn)代城市社會(huì)中因?yàn)楦鞣N原因而滋生的非積極心態(tài),其幸福感的缺損也是可以理解的。
其三,努力進(jìn)取的積極心態(tài),能夠提升城市居民的幸福感,卻降低了農(nóng)村居民的幸福感。被訪者對(duì)進(jìn)取心在事業(yè)成功中重要性的認(rèn)知每上升一級(jí),農(nóng)村居民的幸福感以1.92%的概率下降,而城市居民的幸福感則以1.17%(-0.019 2+0.030 9)的概率上升。我們可以從城鄉(xiāng)二元結(jié)構(gòu)下不同的發(fā)展機(jī)會(huì)找到對(duì)這一現(xiàn)象的解釋。在城市,城市居民努力進(jìn)取的積極心態(tài)之所以能夠增強(qiáng)其幸福感,是因?yàn)樗麄冇兄鄬?duì)優(yōu)越的客觀社會(huì)環(huán)境,個(gè)人積極進(jìn)取、廣闊的發(fā)展機(jī)會(huì)、個(gè)人成就與幸福,三者之間是內(nèi)在一致的;在農(nóng)村,由于在客觀條件、發(fā)展機(jī)會(huì)、制度安排等方面的不足,努力進(jìn)取未必就能取得好的結(jié)果。
此外,模型(3)回歸結(jié)果表明,絕對(duì)收入對(duì)農(nóng)村居民幸福感的正效應(yīng)大于城市——絕對(duì)收入對(duì)數(shù)值每增加一個(gè)單位,農(nóng)村居民幸福感以7.1%的概率顯著上升,城市居民幸福感上升的概率僅為1.01%(0.071 0-0.060 9);但是,相對(duì)收入對(duì)城市居民幸福感的正效應(yīng)卻大于農(nóng)村——相對(duì)收入每提升一單位,農(nóng)村居民幸福感以19.1%的概率上升,而城市居民幸福感上升的概率則更大,約為27.6%(0.191+0.085)。上述結(jié)論與大多已有的研究結(jié)論是一致的:低收入群體(農(nóng)村居民)更加重視絕對(duì)收入的增加,而高收入群體(城市居民)更關(guān)注相對(duì)收入的改善[11-12]。
我們?cè)谀P停?)中還有一個(gè)有趣的發(fā)現(xiàn):雖然戶籍項(xiàng)系數(shù)顯著為正,但是,戶籍項(xiàng)與絕對(duì)收入對(duì)數(shù)、命運(yùn)及家境的交互項(xiàng)系數(shù)卻顯著為負(fù)。這意味著,絕對(duì)收入、人們對(duì)命運(yùn)和家境的認(rèn)知,在一定條件下有可能導(dǎo)致城鄉(xiāng)幸福悖論。
首先,在控制其他變量的前提下,當(dāng)絕對(duì)收入對(duì)數(shù)取值約為9.681 2(0.668÷0.060 9),即絕對(duì)收入達(dá)到16 013.7元(e9.681 2)時(shí),是城鄉(xiāng)幸福悖論的拐點(diǎn):在其他條件相同的情況下,在那些絕對(duì)收入超過16 013.7元的居民中,農(nóng)村居民幸福感要強(qiáng)于城市居民;當(dāng)絕對(duì)收入低于16 013.7元時(shí),城鄉(xiāng)幸福悖論消失,城市居民仍然比農(nóng)村居民幸福。這一實(shí)證結(jié)果與我們平時(shí)對(duì)城鄉(xiāng)生活的觀察比較吻合。絕對(duì)收入16 013.7元低于樣本均值22 471.4元,只相當(dāng)于71.6%的均值水平,超過這一拐點(diǎn)值的家戶樣本有3 545個(gè),占整個(gè)樣本的比例大概是43.94%。其中,超過絕對(duì)收入值的農(nóng)村樣本量?jī)H有620個(gè),占農(nóng)村家庭樣本量的比例為19.02%;而城市樣本中超過這個(gè)值的有2 925個(gè),占城市家庭樣本量的比例為60.82%。這說明,如果除絕對(duì)收入之外的其他條件相同,那么,就可能有19.02%的農(nóng)村居民的幸福感超過60.82%的城市居民幸福感。
其次,控制其他變量不變,命運(yùn)認(rèn)知的取值為10.932 8(0.668÷0.061 1),是命運(yùn)認(rèn)知導(dǎo)致城鄉(xiāng)幸福悖論的拐點(diǎn)。家境認(rèn)知導(dǎo)致城鄉(xiāng)幸福悖論的拐點(diǎn)是11.078(0.668÷0.060 3)。然而,在現(xiàn)實(shí)中,命運(yùn)和家境認(rèn)知的最大值是5,遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)低于上述兩個(gè)邏輯上的拐點(diǎn)值。因此,即使命運(yùn)取最大值,或者家境取最大值,均不存在城鄉(xiāng)幸福悖論。這一結(jié)論進(jìn)一步驗(yàn)證了我們此前關(guān)于人生態(tài)度變量影響城鄉(xiāng)居民幸福感的基本結(jié)論。
4 基本結(jié)論與啟示
中國(guó)經(jīng)濟(jì)快速增長(zhǎng)的同時(shí),城鄉(xiāng)居民收入以及教育、醫(yī)療、社會(huì)保障等物質(zhì)生活條件差距不斷擴(kuò)大,但是,一些實(shí)證分析表明,中國(guó)農(nóng)村居民的主觀幸福感卻強(qiáng)于城鎮(zhèn)居民。既然如此,如果農(nóng)民為什么還要擠進(jìn)城市?難道城市是幸福的“圍城”?城里城外哪方面的差異造就了這種城鄉(xiāng)幸福悖論?
反思“Easterli悖論”及其后續(xù)研究文獻(xiàn),我們獲得兩點(diǎn)研究靈感,從而形成了本文不同于現(xiàn)有相關(guān)文獻(xiàn)的分析思路:其一,把城鄉(xiāng)幸福悖論事實(shí)放置于中國(guó)長(zhǎng)期形成的城鄉(xiāng)二元經(jīng)濟(jì)社會(huì)結(jié)構(gòu)現(xiàn)實(shí)之中,從橫截面不同社會(huì)系統(tǒng)比較的視角,而不是同一系統(tǒng)中縱向的幸福收入關(guān)系視角,去審視這一悖論事實(shí)。其二,將幸福問題的客觀研究路徑與主觀研究路徑融合起來,特別關(guān)注我國(guó)城鄉(xiāng)二元社會(huì)結(jié)構(gòu)在物質(zhì)生活基礎(chǔ)上形成的生活方式、精神文化以及居民生活心態(tài)與價(jià)值觀念的差異。
我們運(yùn)用Order Probit模型對(duì)中國(guó)綜合社會(huì)調(diào)查(CGSS)中存在城鄉(xiāng)悖論事實(shí)的2006年數(shù)據(jù)進(jìn)行了分析,結(jié)果表明,城鄉(xiāng)幸福悖論源于城鄉(xiāng)居民不同的主觀心態(tài)。盡管城市居民在收入、醫(yī)療、教育等方面均優(yōu)于農(nóng)村,然而,控制絕對(duì)收入、相對(duì)收入及個(gè)體特征等相關(guān)變量之后,城市居民并不比農(nóng)村居民更幸福。但是,一旦加入城鄉(xiāng)居民對(duì)“命運(yùn)”、“家境”和“進(jìn)取心”等主觀心態(tài),城市居民幸福感會(huì)高于農(nóng)村居民幸福感。就此而論,如果城市是“幸福的圍城”,那么,它就在居民的心里,生活心態(tài)的變化決定了“圍墻”的高度。
然而,主觀心態(tài)總是外在的客觀物質(zhì)世界的反映。我們應(yīng)該進(jìn)一步追問,城鄉(xiāng)居民為什么會(huì)有不同的生活心態(tài)。本文的分析還揭示這樣一種深層的事實(shí):如果除絕對(duì)收入之外的其他條件都相同,那么,在那些絕對(duì)收入達(dá)到或超過71.6%的均值水平的城鄉(xiāng)居民中,農(nóng)村居民(占農(nóng)民樣本量的19.02%)的幸福感超過城市居民(占城市居民樣本量的60.82%)的幸福感。
最好的社會(huì)應(yīng)該是公民最幸福的社會(huì),發(fā)展的根本目標(biāo)在于促進(jìn)公民幸福。工業(yè)化、信息化、城鎮(zhèn)化、農(nóng)業(yè)現(xiàn)代化,都只是發(fā)展的路徑而非發(fā)展的目的。本文分析結(jié)果啟示我們:第一,城市化進(jìn)程有可能是建造“幸福圍城”的過程,從而違背了城市化發(fā)展的基本初衷。因此,在推進(jìn)城市化發(fā)展、促進(jìn)經(jīng)濟(jì)增長(zhǎng)的進(jìn)程中,應(yīng)該關(guān)注居民心靈感受及其變化,引導(dǎo)物質(zhì)生產(chǎn)、物質(zhì)生活變化所需要的新的精神生活方式;第二,就發(fā)展的終極目的而言,城市化并不是當(dāng)代中國(guó)社會(huì)經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展的唯一路徑,增加農(nóng)民收入、為農(nóng)民提供均等化的公共基礎(chǔ)服務(wù),在農(nóng)村同樣能增強(qiáng)人們的福祉。
(編輯:劉呈慶)
參考文獻(xiàn)(References)
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[11]Easterlin R. Will Raising the Incomes of All Increase the Happiness of All? [J]. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 1995, 27(1): 35-47.
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[13]Kahneman D, Diener E, Schwartz N. WellBeing: The Foundations of Hedonic Psychology[M]. New York: Russell Sange Foundation Press, 1999.
[14]田國(guó)強(qiáng),楊立巖.對(duì)“幸福收入之謎”的一個(gè)解答:理論與實(shí)證[J].經(jīng)濟(jì)研究,2006,(11):4-17.
[15]何立華,金江. 誰(shuí)是幸福的?——個(gè)體特征、外部環(huán)境與主觀幸福感[J].經(jīng)濟(jì)評(píng)論,2011,(5):30-37.
[16]Veenhoven R. Conditions of Happiness[M]. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Press, 1984.
[17]McKelvey R D, Zavoina W. A Statistical Model for the Analysis of Order Level Dependent Variables[J]. Journal of Mathematical Sociology, 1975, (4): 103-120.
Abstract With the rapid growth of China, the gaps of urbanrural income, education, health care, social security and other physical life conditions are widening, but some empirical analyses show that, the subjective wellbeing of rural residents is stronger than that of urban residents. Taking the paradox fact into consideration when analyzing the dual social structure between urban and rural areas, the paper has made an empirical analysis based on the Chinas General Social Survey (CGSS) data by using the Order Probit model. The results show that, for one thing, the paradox mainly comes from the different mindset of the urban and rural residents: the urban residents are not happier than rural residents when we control the absolute income, relative, and characteristics variables, however, once the mindset of the residents, such as the ‘fate, the ‘family and the ‘enterprise are controlled, the urban residents are happier than rural residents. For another, with the mindset of residents and other conditions unchanged, the rural residents are happier than urban residents when the residents absolute income is above 16 013.7yuan; when the residents absolute income is below 16 013.7yuan, the urban residents are happier than rural residents. The results of the analysis enlighten us that, rather than development purposes, industrialization, informatization, urbanization and agricultural modernization are the paths of development. And the urbanization may be a process of building the ‘the besieged city of happiness, which goes against the basic purpose of development. As for the ultimate purpose of development, the urbanization is not the only path of development, and increasing rural residents income and providing equal public service for rural residents can enhance the wellbeing of people in the countryside as well.
Key words subjective wellbeing; the happiness paradox between urban and rural; the dual social structure; urbanization
[5]Ng YewKuang. From Preference to Happiness: Towards a More Complete Welfare Economics[J]. Social Choice and Welfare, 2003, (20): 307-350.
[6]Veenhoven R. Developments in Satisfaction Research[J]. Social Indicators Research, 1996, 37(1): 1-46.
[7]Layard R. Rethinking Public Economics: The Implication of Rivalry and Habit[C]//Bruni L, Porta P L. Economics and Happiness: Framing the Analysis. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005: 147-169.
[8]Luttmer, Erzo. Neighbors as Negatives: Relative Earnings and Wellbeing[J]. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 2005, 120(3): 963-1002.
[9]Di Tella R, MacCulloch R. Some Use of Happiness Data in Economics[J]. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 2006, 20(1): 25-46.
[10]Diener E, Tov W. Subject Wellbeing and Peace[J]. Journal of Social Issues, 2007, 63(2): 421-440.
[11]Easterlin R. Will Raising the Incomes of All Increase the Happiness of All? [J]. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 1995, 27(1): 35-47.
[12]Easeterlin R, Morgan R, Switek M, et al. Chinas Life Satisfaction, 1990-2010[J]. Proceedings of the National Academy Sciences, 2012, 109(25): 9775-9780.
[13]Kahneman D, Diener E, Schwartz N. WellBeing: The Foundations of Hedonic Psychology[M]. New York: Russell Sange Foundation Press, 1999.
[14]田國(guó)強(qiáng),楊立巖.對(duì)“幸福收入之謎”的一個(gè)解答:理論與實(shí)證[J].經(jīng)濟(jì)研究,2006,(11):4-17.
[15]何立華,金江. 誰(shuí)是幸福的?——個(gè)體特征、外部環(huán)境與主觀幸福感[J].經(jīng)濟(jì)評(píng)論,2011,(5):30-37.
[16]Veenhoven R. Conditions of Happiness[M]. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Press, 1984.
[17]McKelvey R D, Zavoina W. A Statistical Model for the Analysis of Order Level Dependent Variables[J]. Journal of Mathematical Sociology, 1975, (4): 103-120.
Abstract With the rapid growth of China, the gaps of urbanrural income, education, health care, social security and other physical life conditions are widening, but some empirical analyses show that, the subjective wellbeing of rural residents is stronger than that of urban residents. Taking the paradox fact into consideration when analyzing the dual social structure between urban and rural areas, the paper has made an empirical analysis based on the Chinas General Social Survey (CGSS) data by using the Order Probit model. The results show that, for one thing, the paradox mainly comes from the different mindset of the urban and rural residents: the urban residents are not happier than rural residents when we control the absolute income, relative, and characteristics variables, however, once the mindset of the residents, such as the ‘fate, the ‘family and the ‘enterprise are controlled, the urban residents are happier than rural residents. For another, with the mindset of residents and other conditions unchanged, the rural residents are happier than urban residents when the residents absolute income is above 16 013.7yuan; when the residents absolute income is below 16 013.7yuan, the urban residents are happier than rural residents. The results of the analysis enlighten us that, rather than development purposes, industrialization, informatization, urbanization and agricultural modernization are the paths of development. And the urbanization may be a process of building the ‘the besieged city of happiness, which goes against the basic purpose of development. As for the ultimate purpose of development, the urbanization is not the only path of development, and increasing rural residents income and providing equal public service for rural residents can enhance the wellbeing of people in the countryside as well.
Key words subjective wellbeing; the happiness paradox between urban and rural; the dual social structure; urbanization
[5]Ng YewKuang. From Preference to Happiness: Towards a More Complete Welfare Economics[J]. Social Choice and Welfare, 2003, (20): 307-350.
[6]Veenhoven R. Developments in Satisfaction Research[J]. Social Indicators Research, 1996, 37(1): 1-46.
[7]Layard R. Rethinking Public Economics: The Implication of Rivalry and Habit[C]//Bruni L, Porta P L. Economics and Happiness: Framing the Analysis. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005: 147-169.
[8]Luttmer, Erzo. Neighbors as Negatives: Relative Earnings and Wellbeing[J]. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 2005, 120(3): 963-1002.
[9]Di Tella R, MacCulloch R. Some Use of Happiness Data in Economics[J]. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 2006, 20(1): 25-46.
[10]Diener E, Tov W. Subject Wellbeing and Peace[J]. Journal of Social Issues, 2007, 63(2): 421-440.
[11]Easterlin R. Will Raising the Incomes of All Increase the Happiness of All? [J]. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 1995, 27(1): 35-47.
[12]Easeterlin R, Morgan R, Switek M, et al. Chinas Life Satisfaction, 1990-2010[J]. Proceedings of the National Academy Sciences, 2012, 109(25): 9775-9780.
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[14]田國(guó)強(qiáng),楊立巖.對(duì)“幸福收入之謎”的一個(gè)解答:理論與實(shí)證[J].經(jīng)濟(jì)研究,2006,(11):4-17.
[15]何立華,金江. 誰(shuí)是幸福的?——個(gè)體特征、外部環(huán)境與主觀幸福感[J].經(jīng)濟(jì)評(píng)論,2011,(5):30-37.
[16]Veenhoven R. Conditions of Happiness[M]. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Press, 1984.
[17]McKelvey R D, Zavoina W. A Statistical Model for the Analysis of Order Level Dependent Variables[J]. Journal of Mathematical Sociology, 1975, (4): 103-120.
Abstract With the rapid growth of China, the gaps of urbanrural income, education, health care, social security and other physical life conditions are widening, but some empirical analyses show that, the subjective wellbeing of rural residents is stronger than that of urban residents. Taking the paradox fact into consideration when analyzing the dual social structure between urban and rural areas, the paper has made an empirical analysis based on the Chinas General Social Survey (CGSS) data by using the Order Probit model. The results show that, for one thing, the paradox mainly comes from the different mindset of the urban and rural residents: the urban residents are not happier than rural residents when we control the absolute income, relative, and characteristics variables, however, once the mindset of the residents, such as the ‘fate, the ‘family and the ‘enterprise are controlled, the urban residents are happier than rural residents. For another, with the mindset of residents and other conditions unchanged, the rural residents are happier than urban residents when the residents absolute income is above 16 013.7yuan; when the residents absolute income is below 16 013.7yuan, the urban residents are happier than rural residents. The results of the analysis enlighten us that, rather than development purposes, industrialization, informatization, urbanization and agricultural modernization are the paths of development. And the urbanization may be a process of building the ‘the besieged city of happiness, which goes against the basic purpose of development. As for the ultimate purpose of development, the urbanization is not the only path of development, and increasing rural residents income and providing equal public service for rural residents can enhance the wellbeing of people in the countryside as well.
Key words subjective wellbeing; the happiness paradox between urban and rural; the dual social structure; urbanization