趙 鑫 陳 玲 張 鵬

(西北師范大學(xué)心理學(xué)院, 行為康復(fù)訓(xùn)練研究中心, 蘭州 730070)

1 引言

抑制控制(Inhibition Control)是執(zhí)行功能的核心成分之一, 是一種主動(dòng)壓制, 中斷或延遲行為的能力(Brydges et al., 2012; Clark, 1996; DeWall,Baumeister, Mead, & Vohs, 2011; Diamond, 2013)。個(gè)體通過(guò)抑制控制來(lái)抑制形成的優(yōu)勢(shì)反應(yīng), 以靈活適應(yīng)不斷變化的環(huán)境, 同時(shí)排除或減少無(wú)關(guān)信息對(duì)當(dāng)前信息加工的影響(Aron, Robbins, & Poldrack, 2004; Aron et al., 2007; DeWall et al., 2011;Diamond, 2013)。研究發(fā)現(xiàn), 抑制控制能力與個(gè)體的身心健康有關(guān)(Penades et al., 2007; Spronk, Jonkman, & Kemne, 2008), 可以預(yù)測(cè)童年早期數(shù)學(xué)能力和閱讀能力的發(fā)展(Blair & Razza, 2007; Bull &Scerif, 2001), 甚至?xí)绊懙缴鐣?huì)功能(Carlson &Moses, 2001)。研究者一般將抑制控制分為沖突抑制(interference inhibition/ interference control)和反應(yīng)抑制(response inhibition /behavioral inhibition)兩種類型(Diamond, 2013; Johnstone, Barry, Markovska, Dimoska, & Clarke, 2009; Nigg, 2000)。反應(yīng)抑制則是指抑制不符合當(dāng)前需要的或不恰當(dāng)行為反應(yīng)的能力(Aron et al., 2004; Booth et al., 2004;Diamond, 2013; Johnstone et al., 2009; Lubman,Yücel, & Pantelis, 2004)。目前, 反應(yīng)抑制的研究范式主要包括反向線索任務(wù)(Antisaccade) (MuNoz &Everling, 2004), Go/No-go任務(wù)(Trommer, Hoeppner,Lorber, & Armstrong, 1988)和停止信號(hào)任務(wù)(Stop-signal tasks, SST) (Logan, 1994)。近期, 有研究表明, 反應(yīng)抑制能力可以通過(guò)訓(xùn)練得到提高(Benikos, Johnstone, & Roodenrys, 2013; Lenartowicz,Verbruggen, Logan, & Poldrack, 2011; Manuel, Grivel,Bernasconi, Murray, & Spierer, 2010)。本文擬從反應(yīng)抑制的訓(xùn)練內(nèi)容、效果以及機(jī)制闡述反應(yīng)抑制功能的可塑性, 為反應(yīng)抑制訓(xùn)練運(yùn)用于教育、臨床治療等領(lǐng)域提供了實(shí)證支持, 以期為該領(lǐng)域的應(yīng)用研究開(kāi)辟新的方向。

2 抑制控制的訓(xùn)練研究

2.1 反應(yīng)抑制的訓(xùn)練內(nèi)容

2.1.1 訓(xùn)練對(duì)象

兒童(Dowsett & Livesey, 2000; Johnstone et al., 2012)成年人(Benikos et al., 2013; Chiu, Aron,& Verbruggen, 2012; Lenartowicz et al., 2011;Manuel et al., 2010; Manuel, Bernasconi, & Spierer,2013; Schapkin, Falkenstein, Marks, & Griefahn,2007)和部分特殊群體(如成癮者、精神分裂癥患者、強(qiáng)迫性障礙患者、肥胖癥患者、沖動(dòng)癥患者, 注意缺陷多動(dòng)障礙患者) (ConNolly, Foxe, Nierenberg,Shpaner, & Garavan, 2012; Johnstone et al., 2012;ReyNolds, Ortengren, Richards, & de Wit, 2006)是反應(yīng)抑制的主要研究對(duì)象。但是大多數(shù)研究的對(duì)象為20歲左右的大學(xué)生(Benikos et al., 2013; Chiu et al., 2012; Lenartowicz et al., 2011; Manuel et al.,2010; Manuel et al., 2013; Schapkin et al., 2007)。Lenartowicz等人(2011)以26名成年人(平均年齡21.3歲)為研究對(duì)象進(jìn)行了停止信號(hào)任務(wù)訓(xùn)練; Chiu等人(2012)選取26名正常成人(平均年齡19.0歲)作為被試進(jìn)行Go/NoGo任務(wù)的訓(xùn)練; Benikos等人(2013)的研究則是以60名健康成年人(平均年齡21.0歲)為采集對(duì)象進(jìn)行Go/NoGo任務(wù)訓(xùn)練; Johnstone等人(2012)選取60個(gè)注意缺陷多動(dòng)障礙(Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, ADHD)兒童, 68個(gè)正常兒童進(jìn)行Go/NoGo任務(wù)訓(xùn)練。

2.1.2 訓(xùn)練任務(wù)

Go/NoGo任務(wù)(Chiu et al.,2012; Meule, Lutz,V?gele, & Kübler, 2012; Thorell, Lindqvist, Bergman Nutley, Bohlin, & Klingberg, 2009)與Stop-single任務(wù)(Manuel et al., 2013; Lenartowicz et al., 2011)是研究者反應(yīng)抑制訓(xùn)練的常用任務(wù)。Go/NoGo任務(wù)是反應(yīng)抑制的主要研究范式之一(Trommer et al.,1988; Thorell et al., 2009)。Meule等人(2012)采用了這一任務(wù)對(duì)女大學(xué)生的反應(yīng)抑制能力進(jìn)行了訓(xùn)練, 在此訓(xùn)練任務(wù)中, 電腦屏幕正中央會(huì)呈現(xiàn)附有高熱量食物和中性物品背景的目標(biāo)刺激(字母x和y)。當(dāng)字母x,y相繼出現(xiàn)時(shí)要按鍵, 當(dāng)字母(如x)重復(fù)出現(xiàn)時(shí)不按鍵。停止信號(hào)任務(wù)同樣是測(cè)量個(gè)體反應(yīng)抑制的經(jīng)典任務(wù)(Logan, 1994)。例如,Lenartowicz等人(2011)的研究中使用這種任務(wù)對(duì)成年人的抑制能力進(jìn)行了訓(xùn)練, 研究者將男女性面孔圖片作為刺激材料, 把只呈現(xiàn)面孔刺激的試次規(guī)定為Go試次, 要求被試作出按鍵反應(yīng); 把面孔刺激之后呈現(xiàn)聲音提示的試次規(guī)定為Stop試次,要求被試不作按鍵反應(yīng)。

2.1.3 訓(xùn)練時(shí)間

對(duì)于不同人群(成年人, 兒童, 特殊群體等)的抑制控制訓(xùn)練時(shí)間從1周到3周不等, 任務(wù)量從45～7200試次不等, 每次訓(xùn)練大約15～60分鐘(Cohen & Poldrack, 2008; Dowsett & Livesey, 2000;Logan & Burkell, 1986; Lenartowicz et al., 2011)。如Dowsett和Livesey (2000)的研究采用Go/NoGo任務(wù), 威斯康辛卡片分類任務(wù)和停止信號(hào)任務(wù)對(duì)3～5歲的32個(gè)抑制能力發(fā)展不良的孩子進(jìn)行訓(xùn)練,訓(xùn)練每天持續(xù)15～20分鐘, 總共45～60個(gè)試次;Cohen和Poldrack (2008)的研究要求被試完成7200試次的停止信號(hào)任務(wù)訓(xùn)練, 每一周3次, 一次持續(xù)1個(gè)小時(shí); Lenartowicz等人(2011)對(duì)26個(gè)成年人進(jìn)行多達(dá)600試次, 每天25分鐘的停止信號(hào)任務(wù)訓(xùn)練。

2.1.4 訓(xùn)練效果評(píng)估任務(wù)

研究者們采用的抑制控制訓(xùn)練的前、后測(cè)任務(wù)主要包括用于測(cè)量抑制能力的Stroop任務(wù)(Gerstadt, Hong, & Diamond, 1994)、Go/NoGo任務(wù)(Berlin & Bohlin, 2002)、Oddball任務(wù)與Flanker任務(wù)(Johnstone et al., 2012; Thorell et al., 2009);用于測(cè)量工作記憶的積木廣度任務(wù)(Span Board)(Wechsler, 1981)、詞匯廣度任務(wù)(Word Span)(Thorell, 2007; Thorell & W?hlstedt, 2006)、計(jì)數(shù)廣度任務(wù)(Counting Span) (Engle, Tuholski, Laughlin,& Conway, 1999)和數(shù)字廣度任務(wù)(Digit Span)(Johnstone et al., 2012; Thorell et al., 2009); 測(cè)量智力的韋氏智力量表(Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence, WASI) (Johnstone et al., 2012)、南澳大利亞拼寫測(cè)試(South Australian Spelling Test,SAST) (Johnstone et al., 2007; Johnstone et al.,2012); 用于測(cè)量問(wèn)題解決能力的聽(tīng)覺(jué)持續(xù)作業(yè)任務(wù)(Continuous Performance Task, CPT) (Korkman,Kemp, & Kirk, 1998)和木塊圖測(cè)試(Block Design Subtest) (Thorell et al., 2009)。例如, Thorell等人(2009)選取4-5歲兒童為研究對(duì)象, 進(jìn)行抑制控制能力的訓(xùn)練, 訓(xùn)練前, 所有被試均接受積木廣度任務(wù), 詞匯廣度任務(wù), Stroop任務(wù), Go/No-go任務(wù),聽(tīng)覺(jué)持續(xù)作業(yè)任務(wù)和木塊圖測(cè)試任務(wù)的前測(cè), 訓(xùn)練結(jié)束后, 所有被試均接受與前測(cè)任務(wù)相同的后測(cè); Johnstone等人(2012)的研究中, 其前后測(cè)任務(wù)涵蓋了韋氏智力量表, 南澳大利亞拼寫測(cè)試,Go-Nogo任務(wù), Oddball任務(wù), Flanker任務(wù)以及計(jì)數(shù)廣度與數(shù)字廣度任務(wù)。

2.1.5 訓(xùn)練效果評(píng)估手段

為了明確抑制控制訓(xùn)練對(duì)個(gè)體的影響, 研究者借助行為(Cohen & Poldrack, 2008; Chiu et al.,2012; Dowsett & Livesey, 2000; Guerrieri, Nederkoorn, & Jansen, 2007; Houben, Havermans, Nederkoorn, & Jansen, 2012; Houben, 2011; Houben &Jansen, 2011; Johnstone et al., 2012; Logan &Burkell, 1986; Lenartowicz et al., 2011; Rueda,Rothbart, McCandliss, SaccomanNo, & Posner,2005; Thorell et al., 2009; Verbruggen & Logan,2008; Veling, Aarts, & Papies, 2011)、腦電(Benikos et al., 2013; Bowley et al., 2013; Jodo & Inoue,1990; Manuel et al., 2010; Manuel et al., 2013;Schapkin et al., 2007)、腦成像(Chiu et al., 2012;Lenartowicz et al., 2011)等技術(shù)對(duì)訓(xùn)練效果進(jìn)行評(píng)估。例如, Guerrieri等人(2007)通過(guò)停止信號(hào)任務(wù)行為實(shí)驗(yàn)比較了正常體重者與超重者訓(xùn)練前、后的停止反應(yīng)時(shí)變化; Lenartowicz等人(2011)借助功能性磁共振成像技術(shù), 探討了訓(xùn)練前、后, 在抑制線索缺失情況下, 右側(cè)額下回有關(guān)抑制的腦區(qū)的激活程度; Chiu等人(2012)將經(jīng)顱磁刺激(transcranial magnetic stimulation, TMS)技術(shù)和Go/NoGo行為實(shí)驗(yàn)相結(jié)合, 探討了被試訓(xùn)練過(guò)程中進(jìn)行反應(yīng)抑制的自動(dòng)檢索過(guò)程。

2.2 訓(xùn)練效果

2.2.1 抑制能力的改變

研究結(jié)果顯示, 抑制控制的訓(xùn)練可以提高個(gè)體在抑制任務(wù)中的表現(xiàn)(Benikos et al., 2013;Johnstone et al., 2012; Jodo & INoue, 1990; Logan& Burkell, 1986; Manuel et al., 2010; Manuel et al.,2013; Schapkin et al., 2007; Verbruggen & Logan,2008)。Manuel等人(2013)以13個(gè)健康成年人為被試, 采用停止信號(hào)任務(wù)進(jìn)行訓(xùn)練, 行為結(jié)果顯示, 停止信號(hào)的反應(yīng)時(shí)顯著下降, 這表明被試經(jīng)過(guò)訓(xùn)練之后抑制能力提高, 此研究結(jié)果與Logan和Burkell (1986)的研究結(jié)果一致。Jodo和INoue(1990)讓被試接受Go/NoGo任務(wù)訓(xùn)練, 結(jié)果發(fā)現(xiàn),訓(xùn)練組個(gè)體在Go刺激上的反應(yīng)時(shí)顯著下降。Manuel等人(2010)與Benikos 等人(2013)的研究對(duì)被試進(jìn)行Go/NoGo任務(wù)訓(xùn)練, 行為結(jié)果顯示,訓(xùn)練后, 被試Go刺激的反應(yīng)時(shí)明顯下降, NoGo刺激反應(yīng)的正確率明顯上升。但是也有些研究并未發(fā)現(xiàn)通過(guò)訓(xùn)練使得反應(yīng)抑制能力得到提升(Bowley et al., 2013; Cohen & Poldrack, 2008;Enge et al., 2014; Guerrieri, Nederkoorn, & Jansen,2012; Thorell et al., 2009)。例如, Enge等人(2014)的研究采用隨機(jī)雙盲實(shí)驗(yàn)設(shè)計(jì), 對(duì)自適應(yīng)訓(xùn)練組,主動(dòng)控制組被試進(jìn)行為期3周的Go/NoGo任務(wù)與停止信號(hào)任務(wù)訓(xùn)練。行為結(jié)果顯示, 訓(xùn)練提高了被試在兩項(xiàng)訓(xùn)練任務(wù)上的反應(yīng)時(shí), 但是自適應(yīng)訓(xùn)練組與主動(dòng)控制組的反應(yīng)時(shí)并無(wú)差異。由于Go/NoGo任務(wù)中抑制能力的測(cè)量指標(biāo)是go的反應(yīng)時(shí)和Nogo的虛報(bào)率, 停止信號(hào)任務(wù)中測(cè)量抑制能力的指標(biāo)是是停止信號(hào)反應(yīng)時(shí)(SSRT), 而停止信號(hào)的反應(yīng)時(shí)是通過(guò)go的反應(yīng)時(shí)減去停止信號(hào)延遲(SSD)得到的, Enge等人(2014)的研究對(duì)被試進(jìn)行Go/NoGo任務(wù)和停止信號(hào)任務(wù)訓(xùn)練只是提高了被試在兩項(xiàng)訓(xùn)練任務(wù)上的反應(yīng)時(shí), 而反應(yīng)時(shí)縮短并不能反映抑制能力的提高。這說(shuō)明被試在訓(xùn)練過(guò)程中將注意力集中于易于控制的執(zhí)行試次,而很少注意停止試次, 從而使得被試的反應(yīng)時(shí)加快, 所以并不能證明通過(guò)訓(xùn)練使得個(gè)體的反應(yīng)抑制能力提升。

2.2.2 大腦活動(dòng)發(fā)生改變

研究結(jié)果顯示, 抑制控制任務(wù)的訓(xùn)練不僅可以提高個(gè)體在抑制任務(wù)中的表現(xiàn), 而且還能改變個(gè)體大腦的活動(dòng)(Benikos et al., 2013; Jodo &INoue, 1990; Johnstone, Pleffer, Barry, Clarke, &Smith,, 2005; Lenartowic et al., 2011; Manuel et al.,2010; Manuel et al., 2013)。研究者采用ERPs技術(shù)發(fā)現(xiàn), 接受了Go/NoGo任務(wù)訓(xùn)練的被試在進(jìn)行Nogo刺激加工時(shí), P3的潛伏期明顯縮短(Jodo &INoue, 1990)。有研究發(fā)現(xiàn), 訓(xùn)練后個(gè)體在Nogo刺激條件下早期N2波幅明顯減小, 晚期P3波幅顯著升高, Benikos等人認(rèn)為(2013)在Nogo刺激下所誘發(fā)的N2成分被認(rèn)為可能與個(gè)體的沖突監(jiān)測(cè)有關(guān), P3成分可能與個(gè)體的選擇性注意以及行為的選擇過(guò)程有關(guān), 但N2, P3成分在不同任務(wù)中所反映的認(rèn)知過(guò)程和認(rèn)知活動(dòng)還存在一定的爭(zhēng)議(Falkenstein, 2006), 通過(guò)反應(yīng)抑制訓(xùn)練, 使得被試在Go/Nogo任務(wù)中的N2和P3成分的波幅發(fā)生變化, 其內(nèi)在機(jī)制還需之后更多的研究進(jìn)一步的探討。腦成像研究結(jié)果發(fā)現(xiàn), Manuel等人(2013)發(fā)現(xiàn)個(gè)體在停止信號(hào)任務(wù)訓(xùn)練之后額葉皮質(zhì)紋狀體(fronto-striatal)區(qū)域的激活明顯減小。Lenartowicz等人(2011)的研究通過(guò)停止信號(hào)任務(wù)訓(xùn)練發(fā)現(xiàn), 訓(xùn)練之后, 被試在完成與抑制相關(guān)的Go試次的任務(wù)時(shí), 右側(cè)額下回三角部區(qū)域(pars triangularis of right inferior frontal gyrus)激活明顯增加。

2.2.3 訓(xùn)練效果的遷移

研究發(fā)現(xiàn), 抑制控制訓(xùn)練的干預(yù)效果會(huì)遷移到相關(guān)任務(wù)與日常生活中的表現(xiàn)中去(Houben &Jansen, 2011; Houben, 2011; Houben et al., 2012;Jones & Field, 2013; Rueda et al., 2005; Veling et al., 2011; Verbruggen et al., 2012)。如Johnstone等人(2012)的研究對(duì)注意缺陷多動(dòng)障礙患者和正常被試進(jìn)行Go/NoGo任務(wù)訓(xùn)練, 結(jié)果發(fā)現(xiàn), 訓(xùn)練致使ADHD患者的癥狀有所緩解, 還使ADHD患者在flanker任務(wù)上的不一致試次的反應(yīng)加快。此外,有證據(jù)表明, 訓(xùn)練任務(wù)的表現(xiàn)提高會(huì)遷移到現(xiàn)實(shí)生活中, 致使個(gè)體在現(xiàn)實(shí)情境下的行為控制能力增強(qiáng)(Houben & Jansen, 2011; Houben et al., 2012;Houben, 2011; Jones & Field, 2013; Veling et al.,2011)。例如, 以高熱量食物為刺激材料的抑制控制電腦程序訓(xùn)練可以減少個(gè)體在現(xiàn)實(shí)生活中對(duì)高熱量食物的攝取量(Houben, 2011; Houben &Jansen, 2011); Verbruggen等人(2012)的研究指出,被試報(bào)告在完成信號(hào)任務(wù)訓(xùn)練后, 賭博任務(wù)中的冒險(xiǎn)行為顯著的減少了。然而, 反應(yīng)抑制訓(xùn)練是否具有有效的遷移效應(yīng), 研究結(jié)果并不一致。一些研究發(fā)現(xiàn), 反應(yīng)抑制訓(xùn)練并未發(fā)現(xiàn)明顯的遷移效果(Benikos et al., 2013; Cohen & Poldrack, 2008;Enge et al., 2014; Lenartowic et al., 2011; Manuel et al., 2010; Manuel et al., 2013;Owen et al., 2010;Thorell et al., 2009)。例如, 為了考查反應(yīng)抑制訓(xùn)練能否改變個(gè)體對(duì)酒精相關(guān)的內(nèi)隱認(rèn)知, Bowley等人(2013)對(duì)59名大學(xué)生進(jìn)行Go/NoGo任務(wù)訓(xùn)練,訓(xùn)練組的一組被試見(jiàn)到啤酒圖片不按鍵, 而另一組被試見(jiàn)到啤酒圖片需要做出按鍵反應(yīng), 研究結(jié)果顯示, 訓(xùn)練后, 個(gè)體對(duì)酒精相關(guān)的內(nèi)隱認(rèn)知并未發(fā)生改變; 此外, Enge等人(2014)的研究對(duì)被試進(jìn)行Go/NoGo任務(wù)和停止信號(hào)任務(wù)訓(xùn)練, 其訓(xùn)練效果在未訓(xùn)練的Stroop任務(wù)上也無(wú)體現(xiàn), 在與抑制控制能力相關(guān)較高的流體智力任務(wù)中也未發(fā)現(xiàn)遷移效應(yīng); Thorell等人(2009)選取4～5歲的兒童為研究對(duì)象, 采用雙盲對(duì)照設(shè)計(jì), 訓(xùn)練組被試進(jìn)行工作記憶或抑制控制行為實(shí)驗(yàn)訓(xùn)練, 控制組被試完成與訓(xùn)練任務(wù)無(wú)關(guān)的電腦游戲, 行為結(jié)果顯示,進(jìn)行工作記憶訓(xùn)練的學(xué)前兒童在測(cè)量抑制能力的Stroop任務(wù)上并無(wú)遷移效果, 同時(shí)抑制控制訓(xùn)練之后也未發(fā)生遷移效應(yīng)。

2.2.4 影響抑制控制訓(xùn)練效果的因素

如前所述, 有些研究并未發(fā)現(xiàn)抑制控制訓(xùn)練的有效性(Benikos et al., 2013; Cohen & Poldrack,2008; Chiu et al., 2012; Enge et al., 2014; Jodo &INoue, 1990; Logan & Burkell, 1986; Manuel et al.,2010; Manuel et al., 2013; Schapkin et al., 2007;Thorell et al., 2009)。那么, 哪些因素影響了訓(xùn)練的效果呢？第一, 訓(xùn)練任務(wù)的設(shè)置。如Thorell等人(2009)的研究發(fā)現(xiàn)工作記憶訓(xùn)練效果顯著, 但抑制控制訓(xùn)練無(wú)效果, 這可能是因?yàn)橐种瓶刂朴?xùn)練任務(wù)中抑制試次占少數(shù)比重, 在同等的時(shí)間條件下, 用于抑制過(guò)程訓(xùn)練的時(shí)間明顯短于工作記憶訓(xùn)練的時(shí)間, 這種訓(xùn)練任務(wù)設(shè)置的差異就有可能致使反應(yīng)抑制能力效果不明顯; 第二, 評(píng)估任務(wù)的選擇。對(duì)于反應(yīng)抑制訓(xùn)練前、后測(cè)評(píng)估任務(wù)的選取也可能會(huì)影響訓(xùn)練的效果。如Hasher及其同事提出抑制有3個(gè)子功能：通達(dá), 清除, 限制(Hasher, Zacks, & May, 1999)。而Wilkinson和Yang (2012)研究中的訓(xùn)練任務(wù)Stroop任務(wù)測(cè)量的是被試的通達(dá)功能, 需要被試不予注意那些無(wú)關(guān)信息, 而近遷移Go/NoGo任務(wù)更強(qiáng)調(diào)被試的限制功能, 對(duì)不恰當(dāng)?shù)膬?yōu)勢(shì)反應(yīng)做出抑制行為, 因此,近遷移任務(wù)的抑制類型與訓(xùn)練任務(wù)的不同引起了訓(xùn)練遷移效應(yīng)的缺失; 第三, 被試反應(yīng)策略的差異。擅長(zhǎng)前攝控制反應(yīng)策略的被試具有控制干擾的加工優(yōu)勢(shì), 而采用后攝控制反應(yīng)策略的被試卻在沖突監(jiān)測(cè)與沖突解決的認(rèn)知任務(wù)上表現(xiàn)出更強(qiáng)的能力(Braver, 2012)。因此, 如Enge等 (2014)的研究中, 擅長(zhǎng)前攝控制反應(yīng)策略的被試可能在訓(xùn)練任務(wù)Go/NoGo上有明顯的加工優(yōu)勢(shì), 而在未訓(xùn)練的遷移任務(wù)Stroop上就會(huì)優(yōu)勢(shì)缺失, 訓(xùn)練對(duì)象的個(gè)體差異也會(huì)影響到訓(xùn)練的遷移效果。

2.3 抑制功能可塑性的機(jī)制

已有的研究從行為和認(rèn)知神經(jīng)層面對(duì)抑制控制的可塑性進(jìn)行了探討。那么, 抑制控制訓(xùn)練到底以何種方式影響個(gè)體的抑制控制能力？其中又有哪些核心因素在發(fā)揮作用？

抑制控制訓(xùn)練引發(fā)行為與大腦活動(dòng)改變的機(jī)制可能涉及自上而下的有意識(shí)抑制控制模式的形成, 此模式的形成與額葉-基底神經(jīng)網(wǎng)絡(luò)的參與有著較為密切的關(guān)系。眾多研究表明, 那些需要前額葉皮層參與的認(rèn)知控制加工是需要意識(shí)參與的(Dehaene & Naccache, 2001; Hommel, 2007)。Manuel等人(2013)研究發(fā)現(xiàn), 停止信號(hào)任務(wù)訓(xùn)練過(guò)程中, 停止信號(hào)出現(xiàn)200ms時(shí), 自上而下的有意識(shí)抑制控制模式在額下回皮層形成。研究者認(rèn)為停止信號(hào)范式中, 只包含Go刺激而沒(méi)有NoGo刺激, 這改變了刺激與反應(yīng)(stimulus-response,S-R)條件反射的規(guī)則, 促使被試在刺激與反應(yīng)不匹配的情況下, 跨越了負(fù)責(zé)感覺(jué)和監(jiān)控身體各部分對(duì)外界刺激反應(yīng)的頂葉區(qū), 直接由負(fù)責(zé)高級(jí)執(zhí)行功能的額下回皮層接受停止信號(hào)的加工, 隨后額下回皮層又激活皮質(zhì)下的基底核, 轉(zhuǎn)而抑制丘腦皮層的輸出, 并且壓制初級(jí)運(yùn)動(dòng)皮層的運(yùn)動(dòng)執(zhí)行, 完成一個(gè)自上而下的有意識(shí)的抑制控制加工過(guò)程(Spierer, Chavan, & Manuel, 2013)。此外,Berkman, Kahn和Merchant (2014)的研究采用雙盲隨機(jī)對(duì)照實(shí)驗(yàn)設(shè)計(jì), 借助功能性磁共振成像(Functional magnetic resonance imaging)技術(shù)對(duì)被試進(jìn)行自適應(yīng)的停止信號(hào)任務(wù)訓(xùn)練。神經(jīng)影像學(xué)的結(jié)果表明, 訓(xùn)練組被試在線索出現(xiàn)時(shí)右側(cè)前額葉區(qū)域激活顯著增加, 在停止信號(hào)出現(xiàn)時(shí)右側(cè)前額葉區(qū)域激活有所減少。這表明, 當(dāng)線索出現(xiàn)時(shí),被試會(huì)基于規(guī)則表征的方式對(duì)還未出現(xiàn)的停止信號(hào)做出有意識(shí)的, 準(zhǔn)備性的反應(yīng)預(yù)期, 引發(fā)對(duì)情境線索的注意偏向, 通過(guò)一種積極主動(dòng)的方式對(duì)情境線索與目標(biāo)任務(wù)(抑制控制)的聯(lián)結(jié)信息進(jìn)行了持續(xù)性地保持, 因此右側(cè)前額葉區(qū)域會(huì)出現(xiàn)較早的前攝移動(dòng), 即在線索呈現(xiàn)之后就引起前額葉的激活。說(shuō)明當(dāng)與抑制相關(guān)的情境線索出現(xiàn)時(shí),自上而下的有意識(shí)的抑制控制模式就會(huì)在額葉區(qū)建立, 這證實(shí)了額葉區(qū)在形成自上而下的有意識(shí)的抑制控制模式上發(fā)揮著必不可少的作用。

另外, 也有研究證據(jù)表明, 抑制控制的可塑性可能與自下而上的自動(dòng)抑制模式的形成有關(guān)(Chiu et al., 2012; Lenartowicz et al., 2011; Logan& Burkell, 1986; Shiffrin & Schneider, 1977;Verbruggen & Logan, 2008; Van Gaal, Lamme, &Ridderinkhof, 2010)。另外Anderson和Folk (2014)最新的一項(xiàng)研究結(jié)果, 間接說(shuō)明了自上而下的反應(yīng)抑制以及解決相關(guān)任務(wù)沖突的情境會(huì)引起自上而下的自動(dòng)抑制模式的形成。研究采用Go/NoGo任務(wù)與flanker任務(wù)的混合任務(wù)探究了引發(fā)自下而上的自動(dòng)抑制模式的影響因素。此任務(wù)中先呈現(xiàn)一個(gè)顏色詞(如紅色寫的紅字)作為提示線索, 提示線索消失后, 在注視點(diǎn)的兩邊呈現(xiàn)具有相同顏色(紅色或藍(lán)色)的側(cè)翼刺激(A或X), 隨后注視點(diǎn)消失, 側(cè)翼刺激繼續(xù)停留在屏幕上, 而代替注視點(diǎn)的目標(biāo)字母(A或X)出現(xiàn)(如AXA)。當(dāng)目標(biāo)字母的顏色與提示線索詞的顏色相一致時(shí), 要求被試做出按鍵反應(yīng)(如AXA即go試次), 當(dāng)目標(biāo)字母的顏色與提示線索詞的顏色不一致時(shí), 要求被試不按鍵(如AXA, 即Nogo試次)。行為結(jié)果發(fā)現(xiàn), 接受訓(xùn)練的個(gè)體在go試次Nogo顏色的情況下(Nogo顏色即提示線索詞是紅的情況下, 紅色為go顏色, 藍(lán)色為Nogo顏色)flanker任務(wù)不一致條件下的反應(yīng)時(shí)(如AXA)短于一致條件下(如AAA)的反應(yīng)時(shí), 即反轉(zhuǎn)的一致性效應(yīng)的出現(xiàn)。這說(shuō)明自上而下的執(zhí)行環(huán)境引起了自下而上的自動(dòng)抑制模式的建立。具體表現(xiàn)為, 當(dāng)提示線索出現(xiàn)時(shí), 被試首先會(huì)啟動(dòng)對(duì)指導(dǎo)語(yǔ)的語(yǔ)義加工, 這種自上而下的概念驅(qū)動(dòng)致使被試靈活的調(diào)整為以目標(biāo)為導(dǎo)向的加工方式, 即被試會(huì)對(duì)Nogo顏色條件下刺激的輪廓特征產(chǎn)生一種知覺(jué)加工偏向, 從而做出快速的、無(wú)意識(shí)的反應(yīng)抑制。Chiu等人(2012)在前人的研究基礎(chǔ)上, 借助經(jīng)顱磁刺激技術(shù), 采用經(jīng)典的Go/NoGo任務(wù)對(duì)被試進(jìn)行反應(yīng)抑制訓(xùn)練,對(duì)比了兩種不同刺激呈現(xiàn)方式下(Nogo-go刺激和go-go刺激)被試皮質(zhì)脊髓的興奮性變化。研究結(jié)果顯示, 刺激呈現(xiàn)100ms后, 與go-go刺激相比,Nogo-go刺激的皮質(zhì)脊髓興奮性降低。腦成像的研究結(jié)果說(shuō)明在Nogo-go刺激呈現(xiàn)時(shí), 被試首先檢索到的是Nogo刺激, 這就需要被試對(duì)Nogo刺激做出主動(dòng)的抑制, 而被試正是在這種需要主動(dòng)抑制的執(zhí)行環(huán)境中形成了自動(dòng)的抑制模式。

此外, 個(gè)體的目標(biāo)狀態(tài)也是建立自下而上無(wú)意識(shí)的抑制控制模式的因素之一。例如, Anderson和Folk (2012)的研究中采用Go/NoGo任務(wù)與flanker任務(wù)的混合任務(wù)訓(xùn)練, 此任務(wù)要求被試對(duì)呈現(xiàn)在中央的紅色字母按鍵, 呈現(xiàn)在中央的藍(lán)色字母不按鍵, 兩邊的側(cè)翼刺激是紅色抑或藍(lán)色。結(jié)果發(fā)現(xiàn)當(dāng)側(cè)翼刺激帶有Nogo目標(biāo)的顏色(藍(lán)色)的情況下, 被試會(huì)選擇性地產(chǎn)生一種反轉(zhuǎn)的一致性效應(yīng), 即側(cè)翼刺激與Nogo目標(biāo)的顏色一致時(shí)的反應(yīng)時(shí)比側(cè)翼刺激與Nogo目標(biāo)的顏色不一致時(shí)的反應(yīng)時(shí)要慢。這就表明被試本準(zhǔn)備對(duì)Nogo目標(biāo)(藍(lán)色字母)做出反應(yīng)抑制, 但卻根據(jù)自己的目標(biāo)狀態(tài), 將Nogo目標(biāo)的特征(藍(lán)色)作為自己抑制的目標(biāo), 做出了快速而又靈活的無(wú)意識(shí)的抑制控制。Chiu和Aron (2013)的研究中采用Go/NoGo掩蔽啟動(dòng)范式訓(xùn)練實(shí)驗(yàn)中也發(fā)現(xiàn)了類似的結(jié)果。

綜上, 個(gè)體有意識(shí)的抑制控制模式和自下而上的自動(dòng)抑制模式在抑制控制訓(xùn)練過(guò)程中有可能建立, 而自下而上的自動(dòng)抑制模式只是激活了部分的抑制控制網(wǎng)絡(luò), 受到有意識(shí)的、謹(jǐn)慎的執(zhí)行功能的控制, 允許被試基于需求的變化快速、靈活的做出調(diào)整。當(dāng)然, 人的抑制系統(tǒng)是十分復(fù)雜的, 這一過(guò)程當(dāng)中還可能存在其他的影響因素,需要研究者進(jìn)一步探索。

3 研究展望

雖然當(dāng)前的研究已證明抑制控制功能具有可塑性, 但是仍有一些問(wèn)題需要關(guān)注。

第一, 當(dāng)前抑制控制功能的訓(xùn)練多集中于反應(yīng)抑制, 涉及沖突抑制可塑性的研究較少。沖突抑制是用以抑制競(jìng)爭(zhēng)刺激干擾的能力(Nigg,2000), 其與反應(yīng)抑制的機(jī)制有所不同(Diamond,2013; Johnstone et al., 2009; Nigg, 2000)。近期, 研究者采用西蒙任務(wù)(Millner, Jaroszewski, Chamarthi,& Pizzagalli, 2012)和Stroop任務(wù)(Davidson, Zacks,& Williams, 2003)對(duì)個(gè)體的沖突抑制能力進(jìn)行訓(xùn)練。Millner等人(2012)對(duì)平均年齡27歲的成年人進(jìn)行改版的西蒙任務(wù)訓(xùn)練。在此任務(wù)中, 當(dāng)啟動(dòng)線索(綠色的圓形)呈現(xiàn)時(shí), 要求被試做出在空間上與刺激呈現(xiàn)方位一致的反應(yīng)(即一致試次); 當(dāng)啟動(dòng)刺激為紅色的圓(方)形或綠色的方形時(shí), 被試在空間上的反應(yīng)與刺激呈現(xiàn)的方位相反(即不一致試次)。行為結(jié)果顯示, 經(jīng)過(guò)訓(xùn)練之后, 被試在不一致試次的反應(yīng)變快且準(zhǔn)確率上升, 另外,與一致試次之后的不一致試次(CI)相比, 被試在不一致試次之后的不一致試次上(II)反應(yīng)時(shí)顯著縮短, 這表明訓(xùn)練產(chǎn)生了顯著的沖突適應(yīng)效應(yīng),進(jìn)一步說(shuō)明訓(xùn)練有效的提高了個(gè)體的沖突監(jiān)控和沖突解決能力。這說(shuō)明, 沖突抑制也具有一定的可塑性, 但是, 目前關(guān)于沖突抑制的訓(xùn)練研究還很少, 對(duì)于其機(jī)制的探討還不多見(jiàn), 因此, 沖突抑制可塑性及其機(jī)制研究以及反應(yīng)抑制和沖突抑制可塑性的比較應(yīng)該是日后該領(lǐng)域需要重視的問(wèn)題。

第二, 目前關(guān)于訓(xùn)練效果的追蹤研究并不多見(jiàn), Houben等人(2011)僅在訓(xùn)練結(jié)束一周后對(duì)訓(xùn)練效果進(jìn)行了追蹤調(diào)查, 雖然證明抑制訓(xùn)練在一周后仍有效, 這無(wú)法有效說(shuō)明抑制控制訓(xùn)練能否對(duì)個(gè)體產(chǎn)生有益而長(zhǎng)期的效果, 今后的研究可以延長(zhǎng)跟蹤調(diào)查的時(shí)間, 明確抑制控制訓(xùn)練的長(zhǎng)期效果。

第三, 兒童期是抑制功能發(fā)展的關(guān)鍵期(Luria, 1981), 生理和行為發(fā)展兩方面的研究證據(jù)都表明, 兒童的抑制能力在發(fā)展中體現(xiàn)出明顯的年齡特征, 最重要的發(fā)展時(shí)期是人生的前6年,嬰兒出生之后一年抑制能力出現(xiàn), 在3到6歲進(jìn)入第一個(gè)快速增長(zhǎng)階段(Best & Miller, 2010; Carlson,2005; Garon, Bryson, & Smith, 2008; Hughes, 2011;Swingler, Willoughby, & Calkins, 2011), 因此結(jié)合抑制功能發(fā)展的“關(guān)鍵期”, 對(duì)兒童進(jìn)行抑制控制訓(xùn)練具有著重要的意義。當(dāng)前成人抑制功能訓(xùn)練研究大多采用單一的訓(xùn)練任務(wù), 而以幼兒為被試的研究考慮到任務(wù)的趣味性, 一般采用包含了不同認(rèn)知成分的多種訓(xùn)練任務(wù), 這樣就很難確定到底是哪種認(rèn)知成分得到了訓(xùn)練？如在Rueda等人(2005)的抑制訓(xùn)練研究中, 幼兒的推理能力在訓(xùn)練后得到提高。然而, 很難確定推理能力的提高是由數(shù)字Stroop任務(wù)的抑制控制訓(xùn)練得到的, 還是由額外的刺激辨別任務(wù)和Go/Nogo任務(wù)得到的。因此, 未來(lái)的研究要更加合理的設(shè)置兒童抑制功能的訓(xùn)練任務(wù), 以便可靠地考察抑制控制訓(xùn)練的效果。

第四, 之前的研究主要關(guān)注成年人(Benikos et al., 2013; Lenartowicz et al., 2011; Manuel et al.,2012; Manuel et al., 2010)和兒童(Dowsett &Livesey, 2000; Rueda et al., 2005; Thorell et al.,2009)抑制控制能力的可塑性, 而作為認(rèn)知功能衰退期的老年人的抑制控制能力可塑性研究相對(duì)較少。大量研究指出, 老年人的抑制能力存在缺陷(Bojko, Kramer, & Peterson, 2004; Butler & Zacks,2006; Gazzaley, Cooney, Rissman, & D’Esposito,2005; Hamm & Hasher, 1992; Nieuwenhuis, Ridderinkhof, de Jong, Kok, & Van der Molen, 2000;Rowe, Valderrama, Hasher, & Lenartowicz, 2006;Yang & Hasher, 2007)。Durston等人(2002)提出抑制功能是高級(jí)的認(rèn)知功能之一, 發(fā)展的最晚, 但退化的卻最早, 所以, 應(yīng)關(guān)注認(rèn)知退化個(gè)體(老年人)抑制功能的訓(xùn)練。研究者發(fā)現(xiàn), 通過(guò)訓(xùn)練老人的執(zhí)行功能, 不僅使得訓(xùn)練任務(wù)成績(jī)提高, 這種執(zhí)行功能的訓(xùn)練效應(yīng)還可以遷移至其它認(rèn)知任務(wù)中(Bherer et al., 2005; Karbach & Kray, 2009)。但是, 對(duì)老年人的抑制控制訓(xùn)練卻未觀察到訓(xùn)練效果的遷移效應(yīng)(Dahlin, Nyberg, B?ckman, & Neely,2008; Wilkinson &Yang, 2012)。此外, 近年來(lái)研究者還發(fā)現(xiàn), 老年人不用借助外部的行為監(jiān)控或反饋, 抑制訓(xùn)練后也會(huì)提高目標(biāo)任務(wù)的行為表現(xiàn),這表明老年人可能會(huì)利用自我激勵(lì)策略去優(yōu)化和監(jiān)控自己的行為(Baltes, Sowarka, & Kliegl,1989;Yang, Krampe, & Baltes, 2006; Yang, Reed, Russo,& Wilkinson, 2009)。如Wilkinson和Yang (2012)選取58個(gè)平均年齡為71.05歲的老年人為被試,并將他們分配到總結(jié)反饋組, 個(gè)體自適應(yīng)反饋組,無(wú)反饋組, 和空白對(duì)照組進(jìn)行Stroop任務(wù)訓(xùn)練,結(jié)果發(fā)現(xiàn), 雖然個(gè)體自適應(yīng)反饋組呈現(xiàn)出個(gè)體間干擾效應(yīng)差異縮小的趨勢(shì), 但反饋卻無(wú)法改變老年人抑制控制的獲益量。因此, 未來(lái)的研究需要更加關(guān)注老人這個(gè)特殊群體的抑制控制訓(xùn)練, 進(jìn)一步揭示認(rèn)知訓(xùn)練對(duì)老年個(gè)體認(rèn)知功能影響的機(jī)制。

Anderson, B. A., & Folk, C. L. (2012). Contingent involuntary motoric inhibition: The involuntary inhibition of a motor response contingent on Top-Down goals.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 38(6), 1348-1352.

Anderson, B. A., & Folk, C. L. (2014). Conditional automaticity in response selection: Contingent involuntary response inhibition with varied Stimulus-Response mapping.Psychological Science, 25(2), 547-554.

Aron, A. R., Durston, S., Eagle, D. M., Logan, G. D., Stinear,C. M., & Stuphorn, V. (2007). Converging evidence for a fronto-basal-ganglia network for inhibitory control of action and cognition.The Journal of Neuroscience, 27(44),11860-11864.

Aron, A. R., Robbins, T. W., & Poldrack, R. A. (2004).Inhibition and the right inferior frontal cortex.Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 8(4), 170-177.

Baltes, P. B., Sowarka, D., & Kliegl, R. (1989). Cognitive training research on fluid intelligence in old age: What can older adults achieve by themselves?.Psychology and Aging, 4(2), 217-221.

Benikos, N., Johnstone, S. J., & Roodenrys, S. J. (2013).Short-term training in the go/Nogo task: Behavioural and neural changes depend on task demands.International Journal of Psychophysiology, 87(3), 301-312.

Berkman, E. T., Kahn, L. E., & Merchant, J. S. (2014).Training-Induced changes in inhibitory control network activity.The Journal of Neuroscience, 34(1), 149-157.

Berlin, L., & Bohlin, G. (2002). Response inhibition,hyperactivity, and conduct problems among preschool children.Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 31(2), 242-251.

Best, J. R., & Miller, P. H. (2010). A developmental perspective on executive function.Child Development, 81(6),1641-1660.

Bherer, L., Kramer, A. F., Peterson, M. S., Colcombe, S.,Erickson, K., & Becic, E. (2005). Training effects on dual-task performance: Are there age-related differences in plasticity of attentional control?.Psychology and Aging,20(4), 695-709.

Blair, C., & Razza, R. P. (2007). Relating effortful control,executive function, and false belief understanding to emerging math and literacy ability in kindergarten.Child Development, 78(2), 647-663.

Bojko, A., Kramer, A. F., & Peterson, M. S. (2004). Age equivalence in switch costs for prosaccade and antisaccade tasks.Psychology and Aging, 19(1), 226-234.

Booth, J. R., Burman, D. D., Meyer, J. R., Gitelman, D. R.,Parrish, T. B., & Mesulam, M. (2004). Development of brain mechanisms for processing orthographic and phonologic representations.Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience,16(7), 1234-1249.

Bowley, C., Faricy, C., Hegarty, B., Johnstone, S. J., Smith, J.L., Kelly, P. J., & Rushby, J. A. (2013). The effects of inhibitory control training on alcohol consumption,implicit alcohol-related cognitions and brain electrical activity.International Journal of Psychophysiology, 89(3),342-348.

Braver, T. S. (2012). The variable nature of cognitive control:A dual mechanism framework.Trends Cognition Science,16(2), 106-113.

Brydges, C. R., Clunies-Ross, K., Clohessy, M., Lo, Z. L.,Nguyen, A., Rousset, C.,... Fox, A. M. (2012). Dissociable components of cognitive control: An event-related potential(ERP) study of response inhibition and interference suppression.PLoS ONE, 7(3), e34482.

Bull, R., & Scerif, G. (2001). Executive functioning as a predictor of children's mathematics ability: Inhibition,switching, and working memory.Developmental Neuropsychology, 19(3), 273-293.

Butler, K. M., & Zacks, R. T. (2006). Age deficits in the control of prepotent responses: Evidence for an inhibitory decline.Psychology and Aging, 21(3), 638-643.

Carlson, S. M., & Moses, L. J. (2001). Individual differences in inhibitory control and children's theory of mind.Child Development, 72(4), 1032-1053.

Carlson, S. M. (2005). Developmentally sensitive measures of executive function in preschool children.Developmental Neuropsychology, 28(2), 595-616.

Chiu, Y. C., Aron, A. R., & Verbruggen, F. (2012). Response suppression by automatic retrieval of stimulus-stop association: Evidence from transcranial magnetic stimulation.Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 24(9), 1908-1918.

Chiu, Y.-C., & Aron, A. R. (2013). Unconsciously triggered response inhibition requires an executive setting.Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 143(1), 56-61.

Clark, J. M. (1996). Contributions of inhibitory mechanisms to unified theory in neuroscience and psychology.Brain and Cognition, 30(1), 127-152.

Cohen, J. R., & Poldrack, R. A. (2008). Automaticity in motor sequence learning does not impair response inhibition.Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 15(1), 108-115.

ConNolly, C. G., Foxe, J. J., Nierenberg, J., Shpaner, M., &Garavan, H. (2012). The neurobiology of cognitive control in successful cocaine abstinence.Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 121(1-2), 45-53.

Dahlin, E., Nyberg, L., B?ckman, L., & Neely, A. S. (2008).Plasticity of executive functioning in young and older adults: Immediate training gains, transfer, and long-term maintenance.Psychology and Aging, 23(4), 720-730.

Davidson, D. J., Zacks, R. T., & Williams, C. C. (2003).Stroop interference, practice, and aging.Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 10(2), 85-98.

Dehaene, S., & Naccache, L. (2001). Towards a cognitive neuroscience of consciousness: Basic evidence and a workspace framework.Cognition, 79(1-2), 1-37.

DeWall, C. N., Baumeister, R. F., Mead, N. L., & Vohs, K. D.(2011). How leaders self-regulate their task performance:Evidence that power promotes diligence, depletion, and disdain.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,100(1), 47-65.

Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions.Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 135-168.

Dowsett, S. M., & Livesey, D. J. (2000). The development of inhibitory control in preschool children: Effects of “executive skills”training.Developmental Psychobiology, 36(2),161-174.

Durston, S., Thomas, K. M., Yang, Y., Ulu?, A. M.,Zimmerman, R. D., & Casey, B. J. (2002). A neural basis for the development of inhibitory control.Developmental Science, 5(4), 9-16.

Enge, S., Behnke, A., Fleischhauer, M., Küttler, L., Kliegel,M., & Strobel, A. (2014). No evidence for true training and transfer effects after inhibitory control training in young healthy adults.Journal of Experimental Psychology:Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 40, 987-1001.

Engle, R. W., Tuholski, S. W., Laughlin, J. E., & Conway, A.R. (1999). Working memory, short-term memory, and general fluid intelligence: A latent-variable approach.Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 128(3),309-329.

Falkenstein, M. (2006). Inhibition, conflict and the Nogo-N2.Clinical Neurophysiology, 117(8), 1638-1640.

Garon, N., Bryson, S. E., & Smith, I. M. (2008). Executive function in preschoolers: A review using an integrative framework.Psychological Bulletin, 134(1), 31-60.

Gazzaley, A., Cooney, J. W., Rissman, J., & D’Esposito, M.(2005).Top-down suppression deficit underlies working memory impairment in Normal aging.Nature Neuroscience,8, 1298-1300.

Gerstadt, C. L., Hong, Y. J., & Diamond, A. (1994). The relationship between cognition and action: Performance of children 3.5～7 years old on a Stroop-like day-night test.Cognition, 53, 129-153.

Guerrieri, R., Nederkoorn, C., & Jansen, A. (2007). The interaction between impulsivity and a varied food environment: Its influence on food intake and overweight.International Journal of Obesity, 32(4), 708-714.

Guerrieri, R., Nederkoorn, C., & Jansen, A. (2012). Disinhibition is easier learned than inhibition. The effects of(dis) inhibition training on food intake.Appetite, 59(1),96-99.

Hamm, V. P., & Hasher, L. (1992). Age and the availability of inferences.Psychology and Aging, 7(1), 56-64.

Hasher, L., Zacks, R. T., & May, C. P. (1999). Inhibitory control, circadian arousal, and age. In D. Gopher & A.Koriat (Eds.),Attention and performance XVII: Cognitive regulation of performance: Interaction of theory and application(pp. 653-675). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.

Hommel, B. (2007). Consciousness and control: Not identical twins.Journal of Consciousness Studies, 14(1-2), 155-176.

Houben, K., Havermans, R. C., Nederkoorn, C., & Jansen, A.(2012). Beer a No-Go: Learning to stop responding to alcohol cues reduces alcohol intake via reduced affective associations rather than increased response inhibition.Addiction, 107(7), 1280-1287.

Houben, K., & Jansen, A. (2011). Training inhibitory control.A recipe for resisting sweet temptations.Appetite, 56(2),345-349.

Houben, K. (2011). Overcoming the urge to splurge:Influencing eating behavior by manipulating inhibitory control.Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 42(3), 384-388.

Hughes, C. (2011). Changes and challenges in 20 years of research into the development of executive functions.Infant and Child Development, 20(3), 251-271.

Jodo, E., & INoue, K. (1990). Effects of practice on the P300 in a Go/NoGo task.Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 76(3), 249-257.

Johnstone, S. J., Barry, R. J., Markovska, V., Dimoska, A., &Clarke, A. R. (2009). Response inhibition and interference control in children with AD/HD: A visual ERP investiga-tion.International Journal of Psychophysiology, 72(2),145-153.

Johnstone, S. J., Dimoska, A., Smith, J. L., Barry, R. J.,Pleffer, C. B., Chiswick, D., & Clarke, A. R. (2007). The development of stop-signal and Go/Nogo response inhibition in children aged 7–12 years: Performanceand event-related potential indices.International Journal of Psychophysiology,63(1), 25-38.

Johnstone, S. J., Pleffer, C. B., Barry, R. J., Clarke, A. R., &Smith, J. L. (2005). Development of inhibitory processing during the go/Nogo task.Journal of Psychophysiology,19(1), 11-23.

Johnstone, S. J., Roodenrys, S., Blackman, R., Johnston, E.,Loveday, K., Mantz, S., & Barratt, M. F. (2012). Neurocognitive training for children with and without AD/HD.ADHD Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders, 4(1),11-23.

Jones, A., & Field, M. (2013). The effects of cue-specific inhibition training on alcohol consumption in heavy social drinkers.Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology,21(1), 8-16.

Karbach, J., & Kray, J. (2009). How useful is executive control training? Age differences in near and far transfer of task-switching training.Developmental Science, 12(6),978-990.

Korkman, M., Kirk, U., & Kemp, S. (1998).NEPSY: A Developmental Neuropsychological Assessment. The Psychological Corporation.

Lenartowicz, A., Verbruggen, F., Logan, G. D., & Poldrack,R. A. (2011). Inhibition-related activation in the right inferior frontal gyrus in the absence of inhibitory cues.Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 23(11), 3388-3399.

Logan, G. D., & Burkell, J. (1986). Dependence and independence in responding to double stimulation: A comparison of stop, change, and dual-task paradigms.Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 12(4), 549-563.

Logan, G. D. (1994).Inhibitory processes in attention,memory, and language: A users' guide to the stop signal paradigm. San Diego: Academic Press.

Lubman, D. I., Yücel, M., & Pantelis, C. (2004). Addiction, a condition of compulsive behaviour? Neuroimaging and neuropsychological evidence of inhibitory dysregulation.Addiction, 99(12), 1491-1502.

Luria, Z. (1981). Handbook of adolescent psychology.Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 51(4), 734-738.

Manuel, A. L., Bernasconi, F., & Spierer, L. (2013). Plastic modifications within inhibitory control networks induced by practicing a stop-signal task: An electrical neuroimaging study.Cortex, 49(4), 1141-1147.

Manuel, A. L., Grivel, J., Bernasconi, F., Murray, M. M., &Spierer, L. (2010). Brain dynamics underlying training-induced improvement in suppressing inappropriate action.The Journal of Neuroscience, 30(41), 13670-13678.

Meule, A., Lutz, A., V?gele, C., & Kübler, A. (2012).Women with elevated food addiction symptoms show accelerated reactions, but no impaired inhibitory control,in response to pictures of high-calorie food-cues.Eating Behaviors, 13(4), 423-428.

Millner, A. J., Jaroszewski, A. C., Chamarthi, H., &Pizzagalli, D. A. (2012). Behavioral and electrophysiological correlates of training-induced cognitive control improvements.NeuroImage, 63(2), 742-753.

MuNoz, D. P., & Everling, S. (2004). Look away: The anti-saccade task and the voluntary control of eye movement.Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 5(3), 218-228.

Nieuwenhuis, S., Ridderinkhof, K. R., De Jong, R., Kok, A.,& Van der Molen, M. W. (2000). Inhibitory inefficiency and failures of intention activation: Age-related decline in the control of saccadic eye movements.Psychology and Aging, 15(4), 635-647.

Nigg, J. T. (2000). On inhibition/disinhibition in developmental psychopathology: Views from cognitive and personality psychology and a working inhibition taxoNomy.Psychological Bulletin, 126(2), 220-246.

Owen, A. M., Hampshire, A., Grahn, J. A., Stenton, R.,Dajani, S., Burns, A. S.,... Ballard, C. G. (2010). Putting brain training to the test.Nature, 465(7299), 775-778.

Penades, R., Catalan, R., Rubia, K., Andres, S., Salamero,M., & Gasto, C. (2007). Impaired response inhibition in obsessive compulsive disorder.European Psychiatry,22(6), 404-410.

ReyNolds, B., Ortengren, A., Richards, J. B., & de Wit, H.(2006). Dimensions of impulsive behavior: Personality and behavioral measures.Personality and Individual Differences, 40(2), 305-315.

Rowe, G., Valderrama, S., Hasher, L., & Lenartowicz, A.(2006). Attentional disregulation: A benefit for implicit memory.Psychology and Aging,21(4), 826-830.

Rueda, M. R., Rothbart, M. K., McCandliss, B. D.,SaccomanNo, L., & Posner, M. I. (2005). Training, maturation, and genetic influences on the development of executive attention.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 102(41), 14931-14936.

Schapkin, S. A., Falkenstein, M., Marks, A., & Griefahn, B.(2007). Practice-related effect in a Go-Nogo task.Perceptual and Motor Skills, 105(3), 1275-1288.

Shiffrin, R. M., & Schneider, W. (1977). Controlled and automatic human information processing: II. Perceptual learning, automatic attending and a general theory.Psychological Review, 84(2), 127-190.

Spierer, L., Chavan, C. F., & Manuel, A. L. (2013). Traininginduced behavioral and brain plasticity in inhibitory control.Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7, 1-7.

Spronk, M., Jonkman, L. M., & Kemner, C. (2008).Response inhibition and attention processing in 5-to 7-year-old children with and without symptoms of ADHD: An ERP study.Clinical Neurophysiology, 119(12), 2738-2752.

Swingler, M. M., Willoughby, M. T., & Calkins, S. D. (2011).EEG power and coherence during preschoolers' performance of an executive function battery.Developmental Psychobiology, 53(8), 771-784.

Thorell, L. B. (2007). Do delay aversion and executive function deficits make distinct contributions to the functional impact of ADHD symptoms? A study of early academic skill deficits.Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48(11), 1061-1070.

Thorell, L. B., Lindqvist, S., Bergman Nutley, S., Bohlin, G.,& Klingberg, T. (2009). Training and transfer effects of executive functions in preschool children.Developmental Science, 12(1), 106-113.

Thorell, L. B., & W?hlstedt, C. (2006). Executive functioning deficits in relation to symptoms of ADHD and/or ODD in preschool children.Infant and Child Development, 15(5),503-518.

Trommer, B. L., Hoeppner, J. A. B., Lorber, R., & Armstrong,K. J. (1988). The Go-No-Go paradigm in attention deficit disorder.Annals of Neurology, 24(5), 610-614.

Van Gaal, S., Lamme, V. A., & Ridderinkhof, K. R. (2010).Unconsciously triggered conflict adaptation.PLoS ONE,5(7), e11508.

Veling, H., Aarts, H., & Papies, E. K. (2011). Using stop signals to inhibit chronic dieters’ responses toward palatable foods.Behaviour Research and Therapy, 49(11),771-780.

Verbruggen, F., & Logan, G. D. (2008). Automatic and controlled response inhibition: Associative learning in the go/No-go and stop-signal paradigms.Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 137(4), 649-672.

Wechsler, D. (1981).WAIS-R manual: Wechsler adult intelligence scale-revised. Psychological Corporation.

Wilkinson, A. J., & Yang, L. (2012). Plasticity of inhibition in older adults: Retest practice and transfer effects.Psychology and Aging, 27(3), 606-615.

Yang, L., & Hasher, L. (2007). The enhanced effects of pictorial distraction in older adults.The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 62(4), 230-233.

Yang, L., Krampe, R. T., & Baltes, P. B. (2006). Basic forms of cognitive plasticity extended into the oldest-old: Retest learning, age, and cognitive functioning.Psychology and Aging, 21(2), 372-378.

Yang, L., Reed, M., Russo, F. A., & Wilkinson, A. (2009). A new look at retest learning in older adults: Learning in the absence of item-specific effects.The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences,64(4), 470-473.