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從刑民比較的視角窺探占有行為之定性

2016-03-09 19:00:31華東政法大學(xué)上海200042
關(guān)鍵詞:占有規(guī)范

戚 斌(華東政法大學(xué),上海 200042)

HAO Fan(Shaanxi University of Technology , Hanzhong 723000,China)

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從刑民比較的視角窺探占有行為之定性

戚 斌
(華東政法大學(xué),上海 200042)

摘 要:占有作為財(cái)產(chǎn)犯罪中的重要部分,雖然民法和刑法上的占有都具有“事實(shí)上的控制、支配狀態(tài)”的內(nèi)涵,但是由于制度、功能方面的不同標(biāo)準(zhǔn),刑法上的占有和民法上的占有又存在一些差異。本文以對(duì)金錢(qián)這一特殊種類(lèi)物的占有為視角,從占有的概念、意思、觀念化程度以及共同占有的占有歸屬上對(duì)民刑占有進(jìn)行區(qū)分,從而得出刑法上的占有是以事實(shí)控制力為基礎(chǔ),以規(guī)范要素為評(píng)判基準(zhǔn)。

關(guān)鍵詞:刑民比較;占有;事實(shí);規(guī)范

一、問(wèn)題的提出與研究意義

刑法中存在很多與民法相交錯(cuò)的問(wèn)題,首要的就是財(cái)產(chǎn)犯罪,刑法中財(cái)產(chǎn)的犯罪中關(guān)于財(cái)產(chǎn)占有的認(rèn)定淵源于民法,另外還有其他與民法權(quán)利行使相關(guān)的部分,比如在違法阻卻上。透過(guò)現(xiàn)象,我們應(yīng)該看到民法和刑法在進(jìn)行權(quán)利保護(hù)時(shí)如何分配權(quán)利這一本質(zhì)問(wèn)題。對(duì)財(cái)產(chǎn)犯罪具有決定意義的主要有以下兩方面:一是原占有關(guān)系的成立,二是打破這種占有的手段。打破占有的手段是容易區(qū)分的,比如以竊取的方式取得財(cái)物的就是盜竊,以足以壓制他人反抗的暴力取得財(cái)物的就是搶劫。當(dāng)多種行為混雜在一起的時(shí)候,就不能僅僅從手段來(lái)認(rèn)定犯罪性質(zhì),這時(shí)候就需要認(rèn)定占有的狀態(tài),即占有的有無(wú)和占有的歸屬,這樣就可以解決不具有典型構(gòu)成要件該當(dāng)性特征的犯罪的定罪問(wèn)題。再如民法不保護(hù)惡意占有,對(duì)盜贓物、毒品、槍支等不適用善意保護(hù)制度,而在刑法中即使是盜贓物、毒品、槍支等也保護(hù)其占有。這些同樣的問(wèn)題,在民法和刑法中有截然不同的看法,這也是研究的意義所在。在理論和司法實(shí)踐中,有關(guān)財(cái)產(chǎn)犯罪的爭(zhēng)議多涉及占有。如廣州許霆案涉及盜竊、侵占的爭(zhēng)議,日本熱烈討論的“村長(zhǎng)案”也涉及存款占有的歸屬的問(wèn)題。繼續(xù)往下引申就會(huì)發(fā)現(xiàn)金錢(qián)作為特殊的種類(lèi)物,在占有討論中的獨(dú)特意義。金錢(qián)占有在民法中的通說(shuō)觀點(diǎn)是“占有即所有”,其目的是為了保護(hù)金錢(qián)在交易中的流通性,刑法中若采用此觀點(diǎn),就會(huì)造成受托保管金錢(qián)的受托人侵占受托財(cái)產(chǎn)的行為,但由于沒(méi)有侵犯他人的所有權(quán)而不構(gòu)成犯罪,顯然這是不符合法理的。大陸法系對(duì)占有的研究已經(jīng)系統(tǒng)化,我國(guó)少有人涉及到這個(gè)方面的問(wèn)題。從刑法的現(xiàn)有研究來(lái)看,存在兩個(gè)問(wèn)題:一方面單一的就占有進(jìn)行刑法學(xué)的評(píng)述,缺乏交叉學(xué)科的比較研究,沒(méi)有形成統(tǒng)一的思路和認(rèn)識(shí);二是沒(méi)有對(duì)刑法中的“金錢(qián)占有”進(jìn)行刑法學(xué)的系統(tǒng)討論。

二、金錢(qián)占有的刑法評(píng)議

金錢(qián)的占有是刑法和民法都涉及的問(wèn)題,金錢(qián)作為特殊種類(lèi)物,理論上普遍采取民法的觀點(diǎn)即“占有即所有”。在刑法中侵占他人委托轉(zhuǎn)交的金錢(qián)行為就無(wú)法定性,因?yàn)闆](méi)有侵犯他人的占有也沒(méi)有侵犯他人的所有。這里筆者從刑法的角度討論受托金錢(qián)占有,以求解決受托金錢(qián)占有認(rèn)定的難題。

(一)民法中的金錢(qián)占有

我國(guó)現(xiàn)行立法沒(méi)有關(guān)于貨幣所有權(quán)的明確規(guī)定,《物權(quán)法》對(duì)貨幣的所有權(quán)也是只字未提。民法理論認(rèn)為金錢(qián)占有的轉(zhuǎn)移伴隨著所有權(quán)的轉(zhuǎn)移,即“占有即所有”。這么規(guī)定的原因有以下三點(diǎn):第一,貨幣的價(jià)值在于流通,在流通的過(guò)程中會(huì)湮滅個(gè)性;第二,貨幣的購(gòu)買(mǎi)力并非是因?yàn)樨泿疟旧淼膬r(jià)值,而是國(guó)家信用的體現(xiàn),因而對(duì)現(xiàn)實(shí)占有人不問(wèn)其取得途徑,承認(rèn)其所有權(quán);第三,若在交易中需調(diào)查貨幣的所有權(quán),那么貨幣的流通性的功能將喪失殆盡,有礙交易的進(jìn)行。[1]貨幣的本質(zhì)屬性是,特定額貨幣可以等額貨幣代替,而貨幣一旦特定即不能以等額貨幣代替。[2]根據(jù)上述民法理論將不特定目的的受托轉(zhuǎn)交的金錢(qián)占有己有的行為不構(gòu)成侵占罪。民事法律保護(hù)的是“動(dòng)態(tài)的關(guān)系”,刑事法律保護(hù)的是“靜態(tài)的秩序”。因此民法上主張貨幣“占有即所有”是為了促進(jìn)交易和流通,也有學(xué)者主張利用物權(quán)法原理中的動(dòng)產(chǎn)變動(dòng)規(guī)則來(lái)規(guī)范貨幣所有權(quán)歸屬的問(wèn)題。民法上也承認(rèn)占有即所有的例外,主要包括以下幾種情況:(1)不適用占有輔助的情形,如雇工、收銀員等對(duì)金錢(qián)的掌控算是“持有”不能是占有;(2)對(duì)于具有“個(gè)性”的貨幣,失去了流通性這一貨幣的本質(zhì)屬性,如收藏者收藏的“豹子號(hào)”。此時(shí)占有與所有分立,在占有之外單獨(dú)成立所有。所以要重新界定刑法中金錢(qián)占有的適用規(guī)則:當(dāng)金錢(qián)作為流通物使用的時(shí)候占有即所有,當(dāng)金錢(qián)不以流通為目的的時(shí)候分別認(rèn)定占有和所有。

(二)受托金錢(qián)占有的刑法定性

民法中區(qū)分金錢(qián)的占有和所有同樣是為了保護(hù)交易安全,比如占有輔助人不能占有金錢(qián),如果侵吞可以主張不當(dāng)?shù)美?。刑法中更多的是為了保護(hù)“靜態(tài)的安全”,因此區(qū)分占有和所有來(lái)確定權(quán)利義務(wù)的樣態(tài)尤為重要,占有和所有的認(rèn)定也是區(qū)分侵占罪和盜竊罪的關(guān)鍵。

1.封緘物為金錢(qián)的占有

金錢(qián)作為封緘物,顧名思義,就是把金錢(qián)放在信封或者保險(xiǎn)箱之類(lèi)的物品里面把錢(qián)密封起來(lái),建立起一個(gè)相對(duì)隔離的空間,讓其處于相對(duì)獨(dú)立的狀態(tài)。這里的占有關(guān)系如何,存在受托人占有說(shuō)、委托人占有說(shuō)、區(qū)別說(shuō)三種學(xué)說(shuō)。委托人占有說(shuō)認(rèn)為,既然封口被密封起來(lái)就說(shuō)明委托人就沒(méi)有交付給受托人占有的意思,不論是占有包裝物還是內(nèi)容物都構(gòu)成盜竊罪。受托人占有說(shuō)與此相反,認(rèn)為既然密封的金錢(qián)已經(jīng)托給受托人保管,受托人就在事實(shí)上支配控制了密封的金錢(qián),因此不論是包裝物還是作為金錢(qián)的內(nèi)容物都?xì)w受托人占有,受托人將密封的金錢(qián)進(jìn)行侵占的行為就構(gòu)成了侵占罪。區(qū)別說(shuō)則認(rèn)為,不能籠統(tǒng)的認(rèn)定歸誰(shuí)占有,作為包裝物歸于受托人占有,作為內(nèi)容物的金錢(qián)歸委托人占有。委托人占有說(shuō)的觀點(diǎn)忽略了受托者的事實(shí)控制和支配,如果金錢(qián)在受托人那里被盜或者搶奪是否也要認(rèn)定是侵犯了委托人的占有?那么委托人就是可以間接占有了。受托者占有說(shuō)從事實(shí)的占有和控制層面來(lái)認(rèn)定占有,沒(méi)有看到委托人之所以用密封的形式就是不想讓受托人管有的內(nèi)容物。區(qū)別說(shuō)也存在問(wèn)題,如全部侵占包裝物和作為內(nèi)容物的金錢(qián)構(gòu)成侵占罪,僅取得內(nèi)容物卻夠成盜竊罪,這顯然是不合理的。根據(jù)上述“金錢(qián)流通”的理論,封緘物為金錢(qián)時(shí),委托人就在客觀層面上否定了金錢(qián)的流通,這時(shí)占有和所有分別認(rèn)定,受托者占有,委托者所有。受托者侵奪了封緘物中的金錢(qián)構(gòu)成侵占。他人對(duì)受托者的金錢(qián)竊取的行為構(gòu)成盜竊罪。

2.限定用途金錢(qián)的占有

關(guān)于受托金錢(qián)的占有,日本的刑法的針對(duì)這一困境的解決辦法是發(fā)明了“金額所有權(quán)”這一概念,就像日本學(xué)者西田典之寫(xiě)得那樣“刑法肯定的并不是作為特定物的金錢(qián)的所有權(quán),而是作為不特定物的金額所有權(quán)”[3]也就是說(shuō)雖然事先挪用了特定用途的金錢(qián),只要按時(shí)歸還就不構(gòu)成侵占委托物罪,這就是日本理論界解決金錢(qián)占有時(shí)的邏輯思考。但我國(guó)并沒(méi)有“金額所有權(quán)”的概念,在限定用途的金錢(qián)被他人使用的情況下該如何解決呢?一種觀點(diǎn)認(rèn)為,限定用途的金錢(qián)歸受托者所有,認(rèn)為就現(xiàn)金而言只要轉(zhuǎn)移了占有便轉(zhuǎn)移了所有,所以乙把現(xiàn)金委托給甲時(shí),即便是甲使用了該現(xiàn)金也因?yàn)椴粚儆凇八说奈铩倍怀闪⑽形锴终迹挥挟?dāng)拒不歸還時(shí)才成立委托物侵占。[4]另一種相反觀點(diǎn)認(rèn)為限定用途的委托購(gòu)物、代為收繳欠款等是委托人所有,受托人僅僅是占有,當(dāng)受托人隨意使用該限定用途的現(xiàn)金時(shí),就構(gòu)成侵占他人之物,構(gòu)成侵占罪[5]。第一種觀點(diǎn)在責(zé)任層面設(shè)置阻卻違法的事由,即要求非法占有的目的,那么以毀棄為目的的侵占將如何解釋?zhuān)康诙N觀點(diǎn),是日本學(xué)者的觀點(diǎn),因?yàn)槿毡驹诮疱X(qián)占有上有“金額所有權(quán)”這一概念,因此不能照搬照用。限定了用途的金錢(qián)可以理解為特定物,比如錢(qián)上的編號(hào)就是對(duì)金錢(qián)的一種固定,在委托人要求返還“那一筆”特定的金錢(qián)時(shí)一旦挪用了特定的金錢(qián)就符合侵占罪的特征。在為了委托人利益的情況下,而擅自使用該特定款物,返還了等額的款項(xiàng),根據(jù)“假定被害人同意”排除違法,此時(shí)不構(gòu)成犯罪。根據(jù)“金錢(qián)流通”原則,限定用途的金錢(qián)喪失了流通,基本上等價(jià)于“物”,因此適用物權(quán)的流轉(zhuǎn)規(guī)則也沒(méi)什么不妥。如果不能返還特定的金錢(qián),也不能返還額度相同的金錢(qián),構(gòu)成侵占罪。以侵占罪保護(hù)限定用途的寄托金錢(qián)其理由是“有必要以法的形式保障寄托人的意愿受到尊重,受托人應(yīng)該依照誠(chéng)實(shí)的規(guī)定按照預(yù)定的用途使用”。[6]

3.混合金錢(qián)的占有

混合,是指不同所有人的動(dòng)產(chǎn)混雜在了一起,難以識(shí)別的事實(shí)。發(fā)生混合時(shí),混合之物的所有權(quán)歸屬規(guī)則是:混合之物的所有權(quán),歸屬于價(jià)值較大的一方。由于混合的發(fā)生,對(duì)方原享有所有權(quán)的物,因喪失了特定性,所有權(quán)消滅,應(yīng)當(dāng)向?qū)Ψ椒颠€對(duì)方之物的價(jià)值。有學(xué)者認(rèn)為當(dāng)行為人的金錢(qián)和被害人的金錢(qián)相混合時(shí),且數(shù)目能夠確定但不能區(qū)分時(shí),成立共同占有,[7]即使該金錢(qián)與不法行為人的金錢(qián)相混合。民法中關(guān)于混合的法律規(guī)定首先是為了穩(wěn)定混合金錢(qián)的所有權(quán)而后通過(guò)支付金錢(qián)的方式來(lái)調(diào)整當(dāng)事人的關(guān)系,但是由于金錢(qián)的特殊性,這一方法是毫無(wú)意義的,所以金錢(qián)并不適用于混合的思考方法也是對(duì)的。如果委托人在事先允許受托人將其金錢(qián)與受托人的混合或者明示流通為目的,所有權(quán)發(fā)生轉(zhuǎn)移,不構(gòu)成侵占,如果受托人侵占該筆金錢(qián),此時(shí)可以通過(guò)不當(dāng)?shù)美麃?lái)主張民事侵權(quán);相反如果委托人要求禁止使用、不能混合時(shí),如果受托人沒(méi)有遵守就構(gòu)成侵占罪。

三、刑法和民法中占有的區(qū)別

通過(guò)以上闡述我們可以看出,金錢(qián)這一特殊種類(lèi)物在民法和刑法上規(guī)定不同主要源于民事法律和刑事法律對(duì)占有的理解和適用不同。民法比刑法上的占有更廣泛,刑法比民法上的占有更規(guī)范,因此有必要對(duì)民法和刑法上的占有進(jìn)行比較區(qū)分、總結(jié),從而對(duì)占有有更清楚的認(rèn)識(shí)。

(一)占有概念的差異

1.民法上的占有概念

民法概念的“占有”始于羅馬法的Possessio和日耳曼法的Gerere相互作用的結(jié)果。羅馬法把占有分為自然占有(Possessio civils)和市民法上的占有(Possessio naturalies),把占有作為一種事實(shí)狀態(tài)的管理支配,與事實(shí)上的支配狀態(tài)相分離,單純就占有狀態(tài)進(jìn)行規(guī)范;日耳曼法的占有則是屬于支配權(quán)的范疇,并且表現(xiàn)為外部的事實(shí)控制狀態(tài)?,F(xiàn)代民法中的占有(Besitz)在形式上繼承了羅馬法,實(shí)質(zhì)上繼承了日耳曼法,基本上是與所有權(quán)(Eigentum)相分離的,占有可以轉(zhuǎn)讓、間接占有并且承認(rèn)權(quán)利推定的效力。

民法上的占有是“主體對(duì)于物基于占有的意思進(jìn)行控制的事實(shí)狀態(tài)”。[8]構(gòu)成占有,至少必須具有兩個(gè)要件:客觀上,占有人事實(shí)上控制或者管領(lǐng)了某物;主觀上,有占有的意思。

2.刑法上占有的概念

關(guān)于刑法上占有的觀點(diǎn)各國(guó)也是各不相同,大陸法系的幾種主要觀點(diǎn)為:(1)管有說(shuō),無(wú)論是自己所有還是他人所有,只要是在自己的管有中,即認(rèn)為是占有(2)事實(shí)以及法律支配說(shuō),除了事實(shí)上的支配外,還包括虛擬財(cái)產(chǎn)、提單、登記薄等法律占有(3)處分可能說(shuō),只要是能像處理自己的財(cái)物那樣去處分就夠成占有(4)支配說(shuō),著力看重事實(shí)的支配要素,認(rèn)為只要能支配就能夠占有。其中“管有說(shuō)”中占有的范圍過(guò)于泛化,不能夠詮釋輔助占有的問(wèn)題。“處分可能性說(shuō)”雖然較管有說(shuō)的范圍有所減小,但按照處分可能性的觀點(diǎn),間接占有是構(gòu)成占有,和多數(shù)國(guó)家不承認(rèn)間接占有的觀點(diǎn)相背離。支配說(shuō)過(guò)于強(qiáng)調(diào)事實(shí)狀態(tài),忽略了刑法對(duì)秩序的保護(hù)需要規(guī)范的認(rèn)同。事實(shí)及法律支配說(shuō)的影響較大,現(xiàn)今的日本和臺(tái)灣采取的判例都是采取這一學(xué)說(shuō)。當(dāng)然現(xiàn)實(shí)的掌控并不是事實(shí)上支配的必要條件,根據(jù)主體對(duì)物的客觀控制以及財(cái)物的特性等可以認(rèn)為是屬于他人客觀事實(shí)上的占有。如能夠自動(dòng)回家的寵物即使在外閑逛也認(rèn)為是主人占有,鎖在家門(mén)口的自行車(chē),即使是放在外面也是屬于他人占有。

3.比較

刑法上的占有和民法上的占有不是等同的概念,比如民法上要求占有人主觀上要有把所得利益據(jù)為己有的意思,但刑法上的占有和民法上不同,他人的利益也可以作為占有的理由;在占有的概念上民法比刑法更加的廣泛,民法上的委托占有、占有改定、間接占有都不是刑法上的占有,此外關(guān)于占有的繼承也不是刑法所承認(rèn)的。民法上的占有制度功能,在于確定權(quán)利人的占有地位,并對(duì)財(cái)產(chǎn)的現(xiàn)實(shí)支配予以法律化并保護(hù)該占有,以維護(hù)私人的權(quán)利。刑法上的占有不解決財(cái)產(chǎn)歸屬的問(wèn)題,刑法上的占有只是為了保護(hù)一種占有狀態(tài),屬于事實(shí)上的支配,通過(guò)確定支配的歸屬來(lái)判定侵奪人或者占有人的行為性質(zhì)。兩者概念的差異主要是因?yàn)槊穹ㄊ潜Wo(hù)私權(quán)強(qiáng)調(diào)“占有的權(quán)利界限”,刑法是為了維護(hù)社會(huì)秩序,著重“占有行為狀態(tài)”的界定。

(二)占有意思的區(qū)別

1.民法上占有的意思

民法上的占有并不要求占有人具備占為己有的意思,但占有人應(yīng)當(dāng)具有一種占為己有的意圖。也就是說(shuō)所謂占有的意思是知道人占有物,無(wú)意識(shí)的占有或應(yīng)當(dāng)知道是在為了他人的利益占有某物不應(yīng)當(dāng)認(rèn)為是占有的意思,因此無(wú)意識(shí)的占有或者占有輔助人的占有都不屬于我們討論占有的范疇。純粹的客觀論認(rèn)為占有是純粹的客觀行為,不需要主觀的意思,這是值得商榷的。任何占有都需要一定的意圖,無(wú)意圖的占有在法律上是沒(méi)有意義的。如《日本民法典》第203條規(guī)定“占有權(quán),由于占有者表示了拋棄占有的意思或者失去了他持有的占有物而喪失,但占有者提出收回占有的起訴不在此限”,而日本民法典并未對(duì)占有的涵義進(jìn)行規(guī)定。從實(shí)踐來(lái)看兩種占有必須予以區(qū)分:一是為了自己的利益而進(jìn)行的占有,如質(zhì)權(quán)人、抵押權(quán)人的占有;二是基于特定關(guān)系的占有,如經(jīng)理占有的店內(nèi)的財(cái)物,學(xué)生占有的桌子等,此種在民法上稱(chēng)之為“占有輔助人”,通說(shuō)認(rèn)為,占有輔助人并不能取得占有,不享有基于占有產(chǎn)生的權(quán)利和義務(wù)。因此在理解占有意思的時(shí)候必須要區(qū)分上述兩種情況。那么占有的意思就是指,意識(shí)到自己正在占有某物;如果沒(méi)有意識(shí)到自己占有某物或者意識(shí)到自己是在為別人占有某物則不具有占有的意思。[9]

2.刑法上占有的意思

占有意思是決定被害人在實(shí)際上是否控制了財(cái)物的關(guān)鍵要素,因此這種意識(shí)只有自然人才有。大谷實(shí)教授認(rèn)為“法人通過(guò)其機(jī)關(guān)代表人也能對(duì)財(cái)物進(jìn)行支配”,在這里不能同意。法人的支配也可以看作是法人代表人的支配,只不過(guò)是基于法人的整體意思通過(guò)自然人表現(xiàn)出來(lái)的,刑法的支配強(qiáng)調(diào)的是直觀的事實(shí)支配,認(rèn)為法人具有支配能力在通過(guò)法人代表人表現(xiàn)出來(lái)的解釋在此是多余的。

刑法中占有的意思和引起民法中法律效果的意思不同,僅是客觀上支配愿望的表達(dá)。因此,只要是自然人,即便是無(wú)意思能力或者行為能力的幼兒、精神病人,在通常情況下,也具有這種意思。[10]關(guān)于占有意思存在兩種相對(duì)立的觀點(diǎn):有學(xué)者認(rèn)為“在排他性極強(qiáng)的私人場(chǎng)所、具有一定排他性的場(chǎng)所不需要占有的意思就可以肯定占有”;[11]有學(xué)者認(rèn)為“無(wú)意思的占有在法律上沒(méi)有任何的意義,如果某人正在控制某物卻自己完全沒(méi)有意識(shí)到,如將一件體積較小的物踩在腳下,過(guò)了很久卻渾然不知,卻很難說(shuō)這種將物踩在自己腳下的實(shí)際控制成為某人的利益。這種情況下,即便他人采取欺騙的手段讓其暫時(shí)離開(kāi),然后趁機(jī)將該物拿走,也不能說(shuō)某人對(duì)他人實(shí)際控制的財(cái)物造成了損害,因此,成為占有,占有人必須具有排他性地控制該物的意思?!盵12]第一種觀點(diǎn)屬于“客觀主義刑法”,事實(shí)上的支配只要足以證明其控制力就不再需要占有意思的規(guī)范,但不能解釋占有概念中對(duì)占有輔助的排除。第二種觀點(diǎn)是從“主客觀一致”的角度來(lái)認(rèn)定占有,過(guò)于強(qiáng)調(diào)了主觀的占有意思。筆者認(rèn)為,這里的占有意思只要具備控制的想法或者愿望就可以,表現(xiàn)為占有人必須清楚他人對(duì)物之控制的持續(xù),且主觀上有控制得意愿,這里僅需要一種內(nèi)心占有的態(tài)度,不要求以民事行為能力對(duì)占有人規(guī)范,因此拿走不具有行為能力人的財(cái)物同樣也構(gòu)成盜竊罪。刑法上的意思不需要明確完整的表達(dá)意思的準(zhǔn)確內(nèi)容,只需要潛在的或是概括的意思就可以成立占有。事實(shí)上處在他人占有、支配下的財(cái)物,原則上推定為他人占有,因此對(duì)在自己家里的財(cái)物即使是不知道其存在或者不在家也推定認(rèn)為有占有的意思,對(duì)于外出不在家放在門(mén)口郵箱中的信也認(rèn)為有占有的意思。占有的意思不需要一直明確的、積極的、不間斷的表示。[13]只要看不出積極的放棄,就應(yīng)該承認(rèn)占有的意思,但是當(dāng)事實(shí)的支配力弱化的時(shí)候,就需要借助積極的事實(shí)支配意思來(lái)強(qiáng)化占有,比如,張三將一輛”山地自行車(chē)“鎖在自己的別墅門(mén)口,隨后外出旅游,第二天車(chē)子被李四竊走,雖然張三外出的時(shí)候?qū)ψ孕熊?chē)的控制力較弱,但是張三把車(chē)子放在自家別墅門(mén)口的行為,足以表達(dá)其占有的意思,因此李四構(gòu)成盜竊罪,倘若張三將其”山地自行車(chē)“鎖在馬路的電線桿上,由于事實(shí)的控制力為零,此時(shí)李四的行為構(gòu)成侵占罪。

3.比較

一般而言,刑法上占有的意思不需要明確界定占有的意思,對(duì)意思內(nèi)容也不需要準(zhǔn)確掌握,只要符合潛在或者推定的程度就可以。因?yàn)槊穹ㄉ系恼加惺菫榱舜_定權(quán)利、義務(wù)的界限,在于評(píng)價(jià)人對(duì)物的地位,占有本身就具有價(jià)值。刑法上的占有是為了維持對(duì)財(cái)物客觀地事實(shí)支配狀態(tài),單純的占有并不具有價(jià)值。如甲放在門(mén)口的郵箱,被別人誤投了價(jià)值不菲的盜贓物,甲并不知情,此時(shí)路過(guò)的乙看到后,以暴力的手段取得了該盜贓物。從民法的角度,由于甲不知道其郵箱中有盜贓物,對(duì)此并沒(méi)有明確的認(rèn)識(shí),而且物權(quán)法否定了盜贓物的善意取得,因此甲并不能占有該盜贓物。從刑法的視角來(lái)看,甲對(duì)他在門(mén)口的郵箱具有事實(shí)上的支配、管領(lǐng)力,主觀上具有占有的意思,即使從社會(huì)一般人的視角來(lái)看,也應(yīng)該承認(rèn),甲對(duì)郵箱內(nèi)投遞物的占有,因此乙侵犯了甲的占有,當(dāng)然構(gòu)成盜竊罪。有些學(xué)者為了把民法中的占有與刑法中的占有區(qū)別開(kāi)來(lái),特意的把刑法中的占有成為管理、所持,日本的判例也較多的使用“所持”一語(yǔ)來(lái)代替“占有”。[14]

(三)占有的觀念化程度

1.民法上的占有觀念化

民法理論注重的是對(duì)權(quán)利的保護(hù),因此民法的屬性就決定占有本身重視對(duì)觀念化地保護(hù)。這種觀念化不僅包括客觀的控制和管領(lǐng),也包涵以法律關(guān)系為媒介的間接控制和支配場(chǎng)合,如在租賃、留置、質(zhì)押等場(chǎng)合下,雖然承租人、留置權(quán)人、質(zhì)權(quán)人實(shí)際上控制所占有的租賃物、留置物、質(zhì)押物但所有權(quán)人仍然是通過(guò)法律關(guān)系間接的占有該物。也正因?yàn)槊穹ㄉ系恼加衅渥罱K目的是為了保護(hù)權(quán)利,因此,一方面,非法的財(cái)物不能成為民法占有的對(duì)象;另一方面,觀念上的占有在民法領(lǐng)域得到很大范圍的承認(rèn),即不要求行為人客觀實(shí)際上對(duì)財(cái)物的控制。[15]在民事法律關(guān)系上,占有的觀念化是為了賦予當(dāng)事人在沒(méi)有實(shí)際控制財(cái)產(chǎn)時(shí),對(duì)物行使相關(guān)權(quán)利,以保護(hù)當(dāng)事人意思自治下的交易便利。當(dāng)然,民法上的許多制度也承認(rèn)占有觀念化,如指示交付、占有改定、間接占有等制度,從民法的視角來(lái)講,只要主體對(duì)客體享有物的權(quán)利,在觀念上也能實(shí)現(xiàn)對(duì)物的占有,如死者繼承在民法上是廣泛被承認(rèn)的,即使繼承人不在身邊或者不知繼承的發(fā)生也能實(shí)現(xiàn)占有。不過(guò),為了適應(yīng)社會(huì)發(fā)生的變化,民法上占有的觀念已經(jīng)在社會(huì)發(fā)展中擴(kuò)張了外延,占有概念也相應(yīng)的觀念化,法律上的因素被吸收了進(jìn)來(lái),降低了時(shí)間和空間上的關(guān)聯(lián)要求。

2.刑法上的占有觀念化

刑法上觀念占有的內(nèi)涵,是指行為人雖然沒(méi)能在客觀上控制、支配財(cái)物對(duì)象,但根據(jù)一般的社會(huì)觀念或者習(xí)慣,可以推定或確認(rèn)由行為人支配時(shí),也可以認(rèn)為歸行為人占有。這種非依客觀控制、支配為依據(jù)的占有叫做觀念占有。刑法上的占有強(qiáng)調(diào)的是實(shí)際的控制、支配狀態(tài),保護(hù)的是“現(xiàn)實(shí)的占有”,但是這并不等同于刑法不保護(hù)觀念占有,比如出質(zhì)人將質(zhì)物質(zhì)押給質(zhì)權(quán)人,雖然出質(zhì)人沒(méi)有實(shí)際的控制、支配質(zhì)物,但刑法會(huì)保護(hù)直接占有質(zhì)物的質(zhì)權(quán)人的占有,從而間接的保護(hù)出質(zhì)人的所有權(quán),也就是民法上的“觀念占有”。但是占有作為一種觀念,也是隨著社會(huì)的發(fā)展和變化不斷的發(fā)展和變化的,比如存單、倉(cāng)單的持有者是通過(guò)對(duì)存單、倉(cāng)單的占有間接控制財(cái)物,但由于此時(shí)觀念控制比較強(qiáng),如果倉(cāng)單或者提單被竊取后,行為人直接去倉(cāng)庫(kù)提取貨物也可以視為盜竊。但此時(shí)財(cái)物是由保管人直接占有,如果倉(cāng)單持有者去盜竊倉(cāng)庫(kù)中的財(cái)物仍然是構(gòu)成盜竊罪的,因其破壞了保管人基于合同對(duì)財(cái)物的現(xiàn)實(shí)占有,說(shuō)明刑法上雖然會(huì)認(rèn)可一些基于法律關(guān)系形成的占有,但當(dāng)觀念的占有與實(shí)施的管領(lǐng)、控制發(fā)生矛盾的時(shí)候,事實(shí)的管領(lǐng)控制得到優(yōu)先保護(hù)。再比如地震發(fā)生主任外出逃難,破損房屋里面的財(cái)產(chǎn),不能認(rèn)為是無(wú)人占有,若此時(shí)拿走財(cái)物,仍認(rèn)定為盜竊罪,以及具有回到原處能力的寵物即使是不在主人的身邊,也應(yīng)該認(rèn)定為主人占有。關(guān)于虛擬財(cái)產(chǎn)占有的問(wèn)題,也是學(xué)術(shù)界討論的如火如荼的話(huà)題,虛擬財(cái)產(chǎn)是沒(méi)有現(xiàn)實(shí)的管領(lǐng)控制的,虛擬財(cái)產(chǎn)的實(shí)質(zhì)是一種“債權(quán)債務(wù)”關(guān)系,承認(rèn)針對(duì)虛擬財(cái)產(chǎn)的“盜號(hào)”行為構(gòu)成盜竊就相當(dāng)于間接承認(rèn)對(duì)虛擬財(cái)產(chǎn)的占有,換另一種說(shuō)法就是承認(rèn)了基于法律行為的觀念占有。伴隨著財(cái)產(chǎn)關(guān)系的復(fù)雜化,刑法中占有的外延也在不斷擴(kuò)大。

3.比較

占有是民法與刑法中的一個(gè)重要概念。民法上的占有是指自然人對(duì)物進(jìn)行客觀的控制,其本質(zhì)在于主體以自己的意思對(duì)物進(jìn)行現(xiàn)實(shí)的支配。刑法維持占有的出發(fā)點(diǎn)在于對(duì)財(cái)產(chǎn)秩序的保護(hù),行為本身要求主體對(duì)財(cái)物進(jìn)行客觀現(xiàn)實(shí)的控制,因此作為非法占有的財(cái)物也能成其保護(hù)的對(duì)象。民法在較大范圍內(nèi)承認(rèn)概括、推定的占有,刑法上更強(qiáng)調(diào)客觀、現(xiàn)實(shí)的占有,在罪刑法定的框架下,極大的限縮了觀念占有的內(nèi)涵和外延。隨著社會(huì)的文明程度逐步提高,觀念上的占有在刑法領(lǐng)域有擴(kuò)大化的趨勢(shì)。毋庸置疑,刑法觀念上的占有在刑法上也有一定的存在價(jià)值,但刑法的二次違法性和秩序性限制了“觀念”的擴(kuò)大。房子、汽車(chē)等大型不動(dòng)產(chǎn)或者動(dòng)產(chǎn),即使脫離占有人的實(shí)際控制,規(guī)范上也承認(rèn)其占有的屬實(shí)在性。對(duì)于大件物品,如汽車(chē)、自行車(chē),當(dāng)其處于人的實(shí)際控制之下時(shí),認(rèn)為是有人占有的財(cái)物;房子等不動(dòng)產(chǎn)即使是沒(méi)人居住也認(rèn)為是處于所有權(quán)人的實(shí)際控制之下。日本民法認(rèn)為占有可以是觀念性的,其分為直接占有和間接占有。直接占有是現(xiàn)實(shí)的占有,間接占有則是觀念性的占有。而刑法中的占有只能是自然人直接現(xiàn)實(shí)的支配和控制,即直接占有,[16]這與日本刑法中的橫領(lǐng)罪有莫大的淵源。一般認(rèn)為,日本刑法規(guī)定的委托物橫領(lǐng)罪中,占有者僅為受托人而不包括委托人。

民法和刑法上占有的差異源于占有制度功能上的差異。民法制度強(qiáng)調(diào)對(duì)占有的保護(hù),觀念上的占有在很大程度上得到了保護(hù),而刑法強(qiáng)調(diào)的是更為客觀和現(xiàn)實(shí)的占有,脫離一般社會(huì)觀念認(rèn)可的占有,僅在很小的范圍內(nèi)得到了承認(rèn)。民法上占有的根本目的在于確定權(quán)力的合法性,非法占有不能成為民法的保護(hù)對(duì)象,如盜贓物因不受民法保護(hù)而不能適用善意取得制度。刑法上的占有不是構(gòu)成違法的部分,只是一種客觀的事實(shí)狀態(tài),因此非法占有也能成為刑法保護(hù)對(duì)象的部分,如A盜竊了B的手機(jī),后B得知A的下落又把手機(jī)盜回來(lái)的行為,仍然構(gòu)成盜竊罪,如果不認(rèn)為是犯罪的話(huà),那么將會(huì)產(chǎn)生大量的“黑吃黑”行為,財(cái)產(chǎn)保護(hù)的法益將無(wú)從而談。

四、刑法中占有的認(rèn)定

通過(guò)對(duì)民法與刑法中占有的概念、意思、觀念化以及共同占有的歸屬的比較分析后,筆者發(fā)現(xiàn)兩者對(duì)財(cái)物占有的法律屬性和定性存在較大分歧,對(duì)刑法中占有的認(rèn)定具有一定的指導(dǎo)意義,接下來(lái)本文就從從事實(shí)與規(guī)范兩個(gè)方面談一下筆者對(duì)刑法中占有認(rèn)定的看法。

(一)占有的事實(shí)性

刑法上的占有強(qiáng)調(diào)的是對(duì)物進(jìn)行事實(shí)性的支配,相對(duì)于強(qiáng)調(diào)占有觀念化的民法,刑法上的支配強(qiáng)調(diào)事實(shí)性。事實(shí)性的認(rèn)定也是我們亟待解決的問(wèn)題。這種“事實(shí)性”主要來(lái)源于物理和時(shí)間兩個(gè)層面,物理層面具體包括:(1)可以結(jié)合財(cái)物的特點(diǎn)來(lái)認(rèn)定占有的有無(wú)。一般來(lái)說(shuō)不易移動(dòng)的物品認(rèn)定占有的程度較大,比如汽車(chē)停放在小區(qū)內(nèi)即使是沒(méi)人實(shí)際的占有也認(rèn)定是有人占有的。(2)結(jié)合財(cái)物是否處于他人的有效控制之下來(lái)認(rèn)定占有的有無(wú),比如被上了鎖的密碼箱。(3)是否屬于排他性距離的范圍內(nèi)的財(cái)物。如在操場(chǎng)上踢球,放在另一側(cè)的備用球,火車(chē)上放在行李架上面的行李,都屬于行為的控制。時(shí)間層面具體表現(xiàn)為:離開(kāi)財(cái)物的時(shí)間越短、距離越近越能肯定對(duì)財(cái)物的占有。例如某人在公共汽車(chē)檢票口排隊(duì)時(shí)遺失了照相機(jī),其后馬上意識(shí)到了這一情況而迅速折回尋找,但已經(jīng)被他人拿走,其間的距離為20米時(shí)間為5分鐘。[17]日本最高裁判所認(rèn)為此時(shí)財(cái)物仍處于占有人的支配力所及的范圍。占有的主體只能是自然人這也客觀的反映出占有的事實(shí)特征,不能認(rèn)為在家里看家的狗構(gòu)成對(duì)家里財(cái)物的占有。因?yàn)檎加幸馑贾荒苁亲匀蝗瞬拍芫哂?,因此占有的主體也只能是自然人。占有的事實(shí)性的另一個(gè)方面就是占有能力,刑法上的占有能力不要求具有民事責(zé)任能力,沒(méi)有年齡和精神狀態(tài)的要求。這是一種自然意義上對(duì)物的控制和支配的資格和能力,因此精神病人、醉漢、兒童同樣可以成為占有人,例如一個(gè)兒童手里拿著玩具,某人從兒童手里奪走兒童的玩具也是構(gòu)成對(duì)兒童占有的“侵占”。

(二)占有的規(guī)范性

在判斷占有的有無(wú)的時(shí)候,物理和時(shí)間層面是控制是至關(guān)重要的兩個(gè)方面。但我們往往不會(huì)純粹的從客觀角度去考慮占有的歸屬,否則占有輔助人就可以憑借實(shí)際的控制和支配直接占有財(cái)物了。因此我們需要結(jié)合社會(huì)一般觀念來(lái)確認(rèn)時(shí)空條件的影響和事實(shí)控制力的有無(wú)。通過(guò)事實(shí)的支配和控制建立起來(lái)占有后,時(shí)空不再是占有的決定性因素。不能要求所有人的注意義務(wù)到貼身占有的程度,除非明示放棄,否則即使是沒(méi)有實(shí)際的占有或者控制,只要按照一般社會(huì)觀念認(rèn)為屬于他人持續(xù)占有的都沒(méi)有喪失占有。比如汽車(chē)停放在住宿房間的外面,汽車(chē)也是屬于主人的占有;主人出門(mén)去遛狗,狗不在主人的身邊,我們也不能否定主人對(duì)狗的占有。那么是不是說(shuō)占有只需觀念的認(rèn)可不需要實(shí)際的控制和支配了呢?筆者在這里認(rèn)為,以事實(shí)的支配和控制的存續(xù)為前提,以規(guī)范來(lái)確定占有的強(qiáng)弱,此時(shí)只是不再單純的依賴(lài)時(shí)空的距離和控制力來(lái)認(rèn)定占有。那么我們還要結(jié)合具體的案件來(lái)考量究竟多久才能認(rèn)定喪失占有。比如放在校園里的自行車(chē),即使是放上幾天也不會(huì)有人認(rèn)為這是無(wú)人占有的,這時(shí)如果被人推走就構(gòu)成盜竊罪。相反,如果在校園里丟了一個(gè)項(xiàng)鏈,可能過(guò)幾分鐘就認(rèn)為已經(jīng)失去了對(duì)項(xiàng)鏈的占有,他人“撿走”的行為就構(gòu)成侵占罪。明顯項(xiàng)鏈的價(jià)值要高于自行車(chē),也就是說(shuō)對(duì)占有的認(rèn)定和價(jià)值無(wú)關(guān),還是要根據(jù)社會(huì)的一般觀念。這里我們可以大致得出占有規(guī)范性的一般含義:事實(shí)控制力的有無(wú)需要根據(jù)不同具體案件結(jié)合社會(huì)的一般觀念進(jìn)行判斷。

(三)事實(shí)與規(guī)范的二重認(rèn)定

事實(shí)和規(guī)范在占有的認(rèn)定上發(fā)揮了不同的功能。首先,占有的成立需要以事實(shí)控制的存在為基礎(chǔ),但控制力并不是占有存在的充分條件,還需要通過(guò)規(guī)范層面的認(rèn)可度來(lái)確認(rèn)占有。比如占有輔助人的占有雖然是事實(shí)上控制支配了財(cái)物,但一般的社會(huì)觀念來(lái)看,不承認(rèn)占有輔助人的占有。應(yīng)該結(jié)合事實(shí)和規(guī)范的雙重角度來(lái)認(rèn)定占有。首先,在事實(shí)層面對(duì)占有進(jìn)行審查,在事實(shí)控制力為零時(shí)不成立占有,也就沒(méi)有必要進(jìn)行規(guī)范討論。在事實(shí)控制力存續(xù)時(shí),以規(guī)范來(lái)認(rèn)定占有的強(qiáng)弱。在判斷占有是否成立的時(shí)候,事實(shí)控制力為零時(shí)不可能成立占有,但規(guī)范認(rèn)同度為零時(shí)仍可以成立占有(竊賊的占有),但在判斷控制力有無(wú)時(shí),往往需要以社會(huì)一般觀念為規(guī)范性視角。[18]其次,在多方均具有控制力的場(chǎng)合,審查控制力是否都得到了規(guī)范上的認(rèn)可,比如“超市盜竊”中,在收銀臺(tái)處即將出門(mén)的時(shí)候,這個(gè)時(shí)候行為人對(duì)竊取的財(cái)物是貼身控制的支配力較大,在超市內(nèi)的所有物品都是歸超市的經(jīng)營(yíng)者占有,這就要借助規(guī)范的力量來(lái)衡量具體認(rèn)同哪一方的占有。毫無(wú)疑問(wèn),社會(huì)觀念都會(huì)認(rèn)為歸超市占有,行為人構(gòu)成盜竊罪。最后,當(dāng)事實(shí)控制力和規(guī)范認(rèn)可度同時(shí)存續(xù)時(shí),就需要比較一下雙方規(guī)范認(rèn)同度的高低。關(guān)于共同占有歸屬的認(rèn)定就屬于這個(gè)問(wèn)題,雙方均得到事實(shí)和規(guī)范認(rèn)同的情況下,就要看規(guī)范認(rèn)同的高低,規(guī)范認(rèn)同度高的那方取得占有。不管一方是基于高度信賴(lài)的關(guān)系將歸屬于自己的那一部分叫由另一方來(lái)管理,還是約定雙方協(xié)商才能支配財(cái)物,根據(jù)社會(huì)的一般觀念來(lái)看,實(shí)際控制支配的那一方在觀念的認(rèn)同度上更高。共同占有的歸屬可以從以下三個(gè)方面進(jìn)行認(rèn)定:一、共同占有人一方的事實(shí)控制力為零時(shí),不成立占有,此時(shí)另一方侵吞共有物的構(gòu)成盜竊罪。二、共同占有人都在事實(shí)和規(guī)范的層面都能夠得到認(rèn)同的情況為共同占有,除非其他占有人明示放棄的意思,否則須經(jīng)一致同意才能處分,未經(jīng)同意進(jìn)行竊取、倒賣(mài)的構(gòu)成盜竊罪。三、雙方都在事實(shí)層面享有控制力,一方的規(guī)范認(rèn)同度高于其他人共同占有人時(shí),規(guī)范認(rèn)同度較高的一方取得占有,其他共同占有人侵吞財(cái)物的構(gòu)成盜竊罪。

五、結(jié)論

通過(guò)前文民法和刑法對(duì)占有問(wèn)題的分析,可以得出兩種法律的價(jià)值取向和立法目的都存在很大區(qū)別。在價(jià)值取向上,民法“重利輕義”,刑法“重義輕利”;在立法目的上,民法的是補(bǔ)償受害人,而刑法則是則是懲罰犯罪人。因此,在金錢(qián)占有的問(wèn)題上,就不能一概而論,比如對(duì)占有對(duì)象的判斷,槍支、毒品、賄款等不能成為占有的對(duì)象,但卻可以成為刑法保護(hù)的對(duì)象。封緘物為金錢(qián)的占有因?yàn)椴灰粤魍槟康模瑸槭芡腥苏加?,若受托人侵犯了“委托信任關(guān)系”,構(gòu)成侵占罪,他人侵奪了封緘物,構(gòu)成盜竊罪。限定用途的金錢(qián)占有如果是為了被害人的利益并能夠及時(shí)歸還款項(xiàng)則阻卻違法,如果不能歸還便構(gòu)成侵占罪?;旌辖疱X(qián)的占有不能適用民法的混合原則,在未得到被害人同意或明示流通的情況下,擅自混同則構(gòu)成侵占罪。這里同樣引出一個(gè)關(guān)于刑法和民法關(guān)系中,刑法獨(dú)立性說(shuō)和刑法從屬性說(shuō)的問(wèn)題,由于篇幅有限,在這里就不多做評(píng)述。在對(duì)民法與刑法關(guān)于占有相關(guān)問(wèn)題比較的基礎(chǔ)上,通過(guò)客觀的控制、支配來(lái)認(rèn)定事實(shí)層面的占有,在事實(shí)控制力為零的基礎(chǔ)上不成立占有,均存在事實(shí)層面的占有時(shí),根據(jù)規(guī)范的認(rèn)可度來(lái)辨別,規(guī)范認(rèn)可度高的可成立占有。這樣使得關(guān)于占有的認(rèn)定更加的接近生活的規(guī)范也不僅僅法律的規(guī)范。畢竟法律的制定是為了保障人民生活的秩序,人民的規(guī)范不能離開(kāi)人民的期待可能性。

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Mechanisms and Strategies for Developing Elderly-Oriented E-Learning——Exploration of Open University for the Elderly

ZHAN Xia & ZHOU Hai-ming & ZHU Xu-yang
(Haining Community College, Haining 314400, China)

Abstract:As information technology is advancing today, it is imperative for the elderly-oriented education to fully explore its advantage to promote e-based learning on terminal of either the internet or mobile phone. In this respect, the open university for the elderly shall build up a micro mechanism conducive to their learning, in considering such factors as learning motivations, obstacles, and environments. This paper proposes some strategies to serve this end in terms of learning material development, publicity, and support service. Network-based courses are usually designed to address pre-supposed problems instead of on-going ones. However, since learners are diverse in terms of individuality and personality, and as the learning is proceeding, uniformly developed materials will hardly satisfy learners’ unique and dynamic needs and debilitate the instructional interaction. The present study reviews literature and practice in this respect, and proposes a dynamically generated system as an alternative solution to the problem. Then the study elaborates the system’s theoretical bases and practical principles. After that, the study constructs the model of one integration, two wings and three approaches, and validates it in empirical research. The study concludes by giving some suggestion to apply the design. Learning evaluation is one of the keys to monitoring the network-based learning quality. But there are some problems with the current system, to name a few, objectives are not clearly set, and evaluators are not widely representative, in addition to the fact that more emphasis is laid on product than process, and more on summative assessment than formative one.book=107,ebook=110This paper elaborates theories of developmental evaluation, and analyzes its value orientation and objectives. Then the paper summaries some instruments. The paper finally proposes a model to implement the network-based learning assessment. The present study conducted a survey to gain insights to those teaching abilities that preservice teachers shall urgently improve. Then the study explored literature review and made a theoretical analyses. The study proposed and validated in empirical research two approaches to employing Tpack in helping teachers enhance their skills to design and implement their teaching. Research results indicated that both strategies produced positive effect. In some rural or pasture areas in Inner Mongolia, a large number of primary or secondary school teachers have been transferred to kindergartens, and they would encounter difficulties in adapting themselves to the new position. The present study conducted surveys of questionnaire and interview to reveal such a problem there. Then the study proposed some approaches to training these teachers and helping them in their professional development. On April 1, 2014, the Ministry of Education issued the Guideline for Promoting Education of Traditional Chinese Culture, and advocated that such instruction shall be introduced into development of curricula and learning materials, andbook=108,ebook=111teachers shall upgrade their own quality. This paper analyzes the music teaching in the primary school, and predicts that this measure will help improve teachers’ sustainable development, explore Chinese traditional culture, and enhance the teaching. Then the paper puts forward some strategies to implement the policy. For postgraduates, their dissertations are fruit of their many years’ toil. The present study samples master’s dissertations of andragogy in China, and analyzes their academic influential power in terms of quantity, citation and influential factor. Findings reveal that the power mounted highest in Shanghai, East China Normal University and the year 2011 when analyzed from perspectives of geography, source, and chronicle respectively. In addition, while the year 2005 saw the highest influential factor, 2007 recorded the most frequent citation. While the university is contributing a lot to the local development, there are still many problems, namely, misunderstanding, ill-planning and organization, inadequate mechanism, less leading power, and marginal mutual benefit between the school and enterprise. This paper proposes measures for the school to address these problems like raising awareness of locality-oriented service, adjusting curriculum and discipline setting, strengthening school-enterprise collaboration, bettering planning and organization, improving its service approaches,and optimizing its service mechanism etc. For the new generation of migrant workers, their mental health is a matter concerning not only their personal growth and development, but also the country’s harmonious development and social stability. A survey conducted in Guang-book=109,ebook=112zhou reveals that their mental state has become a serious problem in need of urgent resolution. The present study endeavors to dig out factors correlating with the workers’ mental well-being, and proposes some measures to deal with the problem. The Records of Travel to the West of Great Tang was written by Xuan Zang, the eminent monk living during the early Tang Dynasty. The book has become invaluable historic document in that it decpited in details that area at that time. The present study employs both quantitantive and qualitative instruments to investigate the psychological verbs of emotion used in the book. Results reveal that these verbs serve mainly two grammatical functions, narration and exposition, and they are distributed unevenly. In addition, the study analyzes the causes to their usage and distribution in the book. Taste has always been a major category in classical Chinese literary thoery, and favored by many scholars. This paper reviews this research ever since 1980s on the following two aspects: one is its connotation, transformation and characteristics; the other is comparative study. The present study borrows insights of critical discourse analysis to investigate usage of modal verbs in news published on Zhejiang Provincial Government website, in comparison with that from VOA(Voice of America) and Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) . Results reveal that the government is ideology-oriented in constructing its image to the outside world. Train back Home is a documentary directed by Fan Lixin, and tracks the three journeys of the protagoist Zhang Changhua, narrating the suffering and hardship of many migrant workers like him in pursuing their dream. The film explores such public space as the train and railway station, and employs the audio-visual language to communicate those farmer workers’ helplessness to upturn their destiny. Liu Xie’s Literary Mind and Dragon Carving occupies an important position in history of literary criticism in China. This article analyzes metaphor used in this book, and reveals that this figurative device helps concretize its wording and increase readability, in addition to manifesting the writer’s great mastery of linguistic skill. Jia Dao was a famous poet in the middle Tang Dynasty. He once practiced Buddhism in his early life, and made friends with many monks. In his career, he created many poems, some of which were in conversation with those friends. Such poetry was driven by three motivations: depicting daily activities in the temple; extending his regards to his friends; and expressing his thinking on Buddhism and yearning for seclusion. Rou Shi was a well-established writer and one of the five martyrs of the Left Wing League. Such complication interests many scholars. In terms of his literary achievement, more attention has been paid to youth than women constructed in his novels. If any, most will concentrate on their destiny instead of their images, no in-depth causal analyses either. The present study endeavors to fill in the gap, and investigate women’s images in his works. Results reveal that in depicting lives of women, especially those marginalized ones like unmarried girls and mothers with deep concern and sympathy, Rou Shi exposed women’s suffering as appendage to men. The crime of endangering public safety with dangerous means is defined to guard the public safety. However, owing to the fact that practice and theory are usually so complicated that no appropriate provisions are available, this crime is made to be an All inclusive one. But this is reasonable in that it covers such crimes in hierarchy of illegality and responsibility. On the other hand, in order not to abuse this all-inclusiveness, attention shall be paid to the following: (1) personal security shall be the core of public security and prerequisite of rights; (2) relevant provisions shall be interpreted by ejusdem generis; (3) quantity of crime shall be erected as the principle to comb relationship of relevelant crimes. A new clause is added up to the Ninth Criminal Law Amendment, and stipulates that those who abuse their professional or business-related expertise to commit a crime or violate their obligation shall be deprived of their rights of practicing such profession within a period of time or for good. The present study analyzes the new addition in terms of its objectives, logic and penalty, and concludes that this provision can be categorized as one of security measures and be applied distinctly from penal code and junction. In respect of its application criteria, a practitioner shall be deprived on the bases of its sensibility, recidivism rate of ex-criminal and its risks. On the other hand, in respect of its application procedures, the people’s court shall announce the penalty in addition to the criminal verdict, while protecting rights of the parties involved in appeal and claim. Strict liability is legislated in America and Britain aiming to protect their public interests as a result of industrial revolution. Since China adopts the civil law system, no such a mechanism is available, but Chinese scholars have always debated over its application in their own country. The present study argues for introducing such provision into Chinese criminal law in that crimes damaging public interests are increasing in the transit period, and the differences between strict liability and general crime lie in their subjectivity to committing the crime. Both the criminal Law and civil law define possession as a behavior denoting de facto control or domination of a property. However, since they adopt divergent criteria in terms of mechanism and function, they interpret such act from different angle. The present study compares their views on possession in such aspects as its definition, connotation, conceptualization, and attribution. The study concludes that the concept is criminal-law-oriented, and based on and judged by regular factors.

Key words:Open University;elderly-oriented electronic learning; mechanism e-learning; tutorials; dynamically generating; design network-based learning; developmental evaluation; index system Tpack; preservice teacher; teaching skills; developing strategies Inner Mongolia; kindergarten teachers transferred from primary or secondary schools; professional development; problems; countermeasures art of Chinese traditional music; school-based curriculum; professional development andragogy; master’s dissertation; academic influential power university;locality;service new generation of migrant workers; mental health; factors; countermeasures The Records of Travel to the West of Great Tang; psychological verbs of emotion; stylistic 1980s ; Chinese classical literary theory ;taste category; review corpus; Zhejiang provincial government website; English news reports; critical discourse analysis; modalbook=110,ebook=113verbs documentary;train;migrant workers;audio-visual language;interpretation Literary Mind and Dragon Carving;metaphor;blending; thinking;understanding Jia Dao;monks;conversation poems ; motivation literary hermeneutics; The Second Sex; The Romance of the Three Kingdoms; modern women Rou Shi; female; novel; society; culture dangerous means ; public safety ; property of crime specific occupation; rights of practitioner; security measures; injunction strict liability;principle of liability;value analysis;applicable rules comparision; possession; fact; specification

Research on Design of Dynamically Generated E-learning Tutorials——Model of One Integration, Two Wings, and Three Approaches

XU Chun-yang1& ZHANG Xiu-mei2
(1 Luoyang No.22 Middle School,Luoyang 471003,China;2 School of Information Technology in Education, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, China)

Design of Developmental Evaluation System for Network-Based Learning

LI Bin
(Guangzhou Open University, Guangzhou 510091,China)

Research on Strategies to Develop Preservice Teachers’ Teaching Skills from Perspective of Tpack——Case Study of Guangdong Polytechnic Normal University

JIN Tao
(Educational Technology and Communication College, Guangdong Polytechnic Normal University, Guangzhou 510665, China)

Professional Development of Preschool Teachers Transferred from Primary or Secondary Schools in Rural and Pasture Areas in Inner Mongolia: Problems and Solutions

LI Yan
(Adult Education department, Baotou Teachers’ College, Baotou 014030 , China)

Helping Develop Music Teachers in Exploring School-Based Curriculum of Traditional Chinese Music

CHEN Jian-hua
(Guangzhou Chaotian Primary School, Guangzhou 510180, China)

Research on Academic Influential Power of Master’s dissertations of Andragogy in China

TAN Fu-yuan
(College of Vocation and Adult Education, Qufu Normal University, Qufu 273165, China)

University’s Locality-Oriented Service: Problems and Solutions

YAN Hong-guo
(Party School of Zhejiang Huzhou Municipal Committee of CPC, Huzhou 313004,China)

New Generation of Migrant Workers’ Mental Health: Problems and Solutions——Case Study of Guangzhou

TANG Yan-er & LIU Yan-li
(Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China)

Research on Psychological Verbs of Emotion in Records of Travel to the West of Great Tang

XING Xiao
(Xinjiang Normal University, Urumqi 830017, China)

Summary of Research on Taste Category in Classical Chinese Literary Theory since 1980s

YAO Xue-jing
(Shool of Liberal Arts, Xinjiang Normal University, Urumqi 830000, China)

Corpus-based Critical Discourse Analysis of News on a Local Government’s Website

LIU Jin-lu
(School of Foreign Languages, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou 310018, China)

Interpretation of Audio-Visual Language Explored in Documentary Train back Home

CHENG Hai-tao
(Chinese Commerce College, Guangdong University of Finance and Economics ; Guangzhou 51130, China)

Analysis of Metaphor in Literary Mind and Dragon Carving

LI Gang-gang
(College of Liberal Arts, Qinghai Normal University, Xining 810008, China)

Motivations Underlying Conversation Poems between Jia Dao and His Monk Friends

YU Qiao
(Shaanxi University of Technology, Hanzhong 723000, China)

Analysis of Second Sex in The Romance of Three Kingdoms from Perspective of Literary Hermeneutics

HAO Fan
(Shaanxi University of Technology , Hanzhong 723000,China)

Abstract: The Romance of the Three Kingdoms accounts winds and clouds of Chinese history from a man’s perspective, conveying extreme flavor of male chauvinism. In ancient society, when patriarchy and agricultural civilization prevailed, women would face such a destiny of being materialized instead of being humanized. In the Second Sex, the authoress Beauvoir, the eminent feminist writer, examines the causes to women’s tragedy from perspectives of biology, mind, and socio-history, and illustrates how they undergo transformation from a classical lady, to a good wife or good mother, until an independent individual. In light of literary hermeneutics, the present study analyzes women’s images in the novel, and exposes their existence in the man-dominated society, giving some insights to contemporary feminist emancipation.

On Women’s Images and Their Cultural Significance in Rou Shi’s Works

LIU Xin
(School of Literature, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510006, China)

Application Extension of Endangering Public Safety with Dangerous Means: Causes and Properties

WANG Jie
(East China University of Political Science and Law,Shanghai 200042,China)

Thinking of Depriving Rights of Specific Profession-Related Practitioners in Ninth Criminal Law Amendment

FAN Ya-nan
(East China University of Political and Science, Shanghai 200042, China)

Discussion on Strict liability in Criminal Law in China

WANG Zheng-yang
(East China University of Political Science and Law,Shanghai 200333,China)

Comparative Study of Possession between perspectives of Criminal and civil Laws

QI bin
(East China university of political science and law,Shanghai 200042, China)

中圖分類(lèi)號(hào):D924

文獻(xiàn)標(biāo)識(shí)碼:A

文章編號(hào):1672-0385(2016)01-0098-08

作者簡(jiǎn)介:戚斌,男,在讀碩士研究生,主要研究方向?yàn)橹袊?guó)刑法學(xué)。

收稿日期:2015-11-21

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