[德]霍格爾·弗萊舍 著
穆冠群 譯
夏登峻 校
法學方法論以及成文法解釋的問題長期被大西洋兩岸國家所忽視。[注]Not all that long ago,Weisberg,Judicial Artist,Statutes and the New Legal Process,35 Stan.L.Rev.213 (1983) wrote:“[T]he general contemporary American view of statutory interpretation is that there is not a great deal to say about the subject.As a result,nothing else as important in the law receives so little attention.”在那個時候,許多美國法學家視成文法解釋為“僅僅是人們在做的事情,而不是人們應該討論和分析的獨立主題”。[注]Frickey,From the Big Sleep to the Big Heat:The Revival of Theory in Statutory Interpretation,77 Minn.L.Rev.241,244 (1992).同理,著名德國學者以及現代比較法的創(chuàng)始人,恩斯特·拉貝爾(Ernst Rabel)曾經說過:“每個優(yōu)秀的法學家都有一個方法,只不過他不說而已”。[注]Reported in Fikentscher,Methoden des Rechts in vergleichender Darstellung,vol.I,1975,p.10.這段在美國被稱為“長睡不醒”的長期學術空白,現在已經結束了。[注]Borrowing from the title of Raymond Chandler’s famous novel,see Frickey (n.2 above).各地法律界對成文法解釋的興趣似乎又復燃了。[注]Speaking the mind of many Eskridge,Dynamic Statutory Interpretation,1994,p.1:“Statutory interpretation is the Cinderella of legal scholarship.Once scorned and neglected,it now dances in the ballroom.”; most recently Gluck,The States as Laboratories of Statutory Interpretation:Methodological Consensus and the New Modified Textualism,111 Yale L.J.1250 (2010); from a European perspective Fleischer,Europ?ische Methodenlehre-Stand und Perspektiven,RabelsZ 75 (2011) (forthcoming).但是關于這個課題的大多數文獻仍然將解釋方法論僅視作一國范圍內的研究范疇。[注]See Hesselink,The Common Frame of Reference as a Source of European Private Law,83 Tul.L.Rev.919,936 (2009):“Legal methods that are normative and meant to contribute to the rational solution of cases according to a specific legal system are not universal but,by definition,local.”; along the same lines Kramer,Juristische Methodenlehre,3rd ed.2010,p.42 f.
本文認為,通過對成文法解釋方法的比較研究,這一主題很可能進一步復活起來。由于實體法的學術比較研究有很多益處,為了細致考察不同法律系統提供的方法論范疇,在解釋方法之間進行比較似乎是較為可行的想法。盡管在裁判風格[注]See K?tz,über den Stil h?chstrichterlicher Entscheidungen,RabelsZ 37 (1973),245; Goutal,Characteristics of Judicial Style in France,Britain and the U.S.A.,24 Am.J.Comp.L.43 (1976); Markesinis,Conceptualism,Pragmatism and Courage:A Common Lawyer Looks at Some Judgments of the German Federal Court,34 Am.J.Comp.L.349 (1986).、法律推理以及憲法文本上不同國家之間存在差異,但同時也存在大量的共同特征,從而讓我們可以慢慢勾勒出不同國家法學方法論的大致輪廓。在成文法解釋遵循一般解釋學的客觀要求時就能發(fā)現其中的一個特征。[注]On the particularities of legal hermeneutics see for example Mastronardi,Juristisches Denken,2nd ed.2003,marg.nos.101 ff.例如,伽達默爾(Gadamer)的“真理與方法”[注]Gadamer,Wahrheit und Methode.Grundzüge einer philosophischen Hermeneutik,1st ed.1960,6th ed.1990.最初不僅被德語學者進行原文研究,還在世界各地被翻譯成英語、法語或是意大利語[注]Gadamer,Truth and Method,2nd rev.ed.1989; Vérité et Méthode,1996; Verità e Metodo,1983.,由此,成文法解釋的種子散播在世界各地。[注]From the point of view of German interpretative methodology,Frommel,Die Rezeption der Hermeneutik bei Karl Larenz und Josef Esser,1981; for an American perspective Eskridge,Gadamer/Statutory Interpretation,90 Colum.L.Rev.609 (1990); Eskridge,Dynamic Statutory Interpretation,1994,p.58 ff.; see also Dworkin,Law’s Empire,1986,p.228,as well as his ironic barb directed at the textualism preached by Justice Scalia,in Scalia,A Matter of Interpretation:Federal Courts and the Law,1997,p.115:“Justice Scalia has managed to give two lectures about meaning with no reference to Derrida or Gadamer or even the hermeneutic circle,and has set out with laudable clarity a sensible account of statutory interpretation.These are considerable accomplishments.”維特根斯坦(Wittgenstein)的語言哲學[注]Wittgenstein,Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus,1921.以及德里達(Derrida)的文字學[注]Derrida,De la grammatologie,1967.也已經被不同地區(qū)、不同法律體系的法律學者所接受。[注]On Wittgenstein see for example Arulanantham,Breaking the Rules? Wittgenstein and Legal Realism,107 Yale L.J.1853 (1998); Busse,Zum Regelcharakter von Normtext-Bedeutungen und Rechtsnormen.Was leistet Wittgensteins Regelbegriff in einer anwendungsbezogenen Semantik für das Interpretationsproblem der juristischen Methodenlehre?,Rechtstheorie 19 (1988),305; Markell,Bewitched by Language:Wittgenstein and the Practice of Law,32 Pepp.L.Rev.801 (2005).On Derrida see for example Amstutz,Der Text des Gesetzes.Genealogie und Evolution von Art.1 ZGB,ZSR 2007,II,237,245 ff.; Critchley,Derrida:The Reader,27 Cardozo L.Rev.553 (2005).方法論原則源自羅馬法,因其本身在很多法律體系中已經建立了起來,所以也起到了統一的作用[注]For a compilation see Kramer,Lateinische Par?mien zur Methode der Rechtsanwendung,Festschrift Ernst H?hn,1995,p.141.。通過比較德特勒夫·利布斯(Detlef Liebs)的目錄“拉丁語法律規(guī)則與法律用語”(Lateinische Rechtsregeln und Rechtssprichw?rter)[注]Liebs,Lateinische Rechtsregeln und Rechtssprichw?rter,7th ed.2007.與羅蘭(Roland)與波伊爾(Boyer)的“法國法的格言”(Adages du droit fran?ais)[注]Roland/Boyer,Adages du droit fran?ais,3rd ed.1992.就可以找到證據支持。最后,統一的國際法長期以來一直致力于促進成文法解釋方法的跨國發(fā)展。[注]Gruber,Methoden des internationalen Einheitsrechts,2004.盡管《聯合國國際貨物銷售合同公約》第7條第(1)項[注]The exact text states:“In the interpretation of this Convention,regard is to be had to its international character and to the need to promote uniformity in its application and the observance of good faith in international trade.”是公認的一般條款,且不包含任何成文法解釋的規(guī)范化方法,但這一條款也是典型例證。[注]See for example Ferrari,in Schlechtriem/Schwenzer,Kommentar zum Einheitlichen UN-Kaufrecht,5th ed.2008,Art.7 marg.no.28.
然而,接下來的反思并不是追求一種武斷的目標——去概述支配全歐洲甚至是全世界的解釋方法的框架。相反,本文試圖通過一個簡單的例子來說明解釋方法的比較途徑。特別是成文法解釋中立法史的重要性這一既簡單又復雜的問題。
1.主觀理論與客觀理論
菲利普·赫克(Philipp Heck)早在1914年寫道:“在成文法解釋的所有個案問題中,圍繞法律史的價值及其使用問題的爭論在某種程度上來說是最為激烈、深刻的。”[注]Heck,Interessenauslegung und Interessenjurisprudenz,AcP 112 (1914),1,105 f.關于這個特定問題的爭論非?;馃?,因為事實上它包含了每代法學家都會重新審視的永恒話題——立法解釋的目標[注]For an in-depth study see for example Mennicken,Das Ziel der Gesetzesauslegung.Eine Untersuchung zur subjektiven und objektiven Auslegungstheorie,1970.。[注]In a similiar vein Engisch,Einführung in das juristische Denken,10th ed.2005,p.123:“I am in fact of the opinion that the entire problem has not yet been solved and that,like every truly fundamental problem,it can not be definitively solved.”兩個互相對立的解釋理論正在爭奪各自的主導權;在令人遺憾的名稱變化中[注]Critical,for example,R?hl/R?hl,Allgemeine Rechtslehre,3rd ed.2008,p.631:“‘Subjective’ interpretation is objective,‘objective’ interpretation is subjective”; speaking,too,of “surprisingly badly chosen and misleading labels”,Rüthers/Fischer,Rechtstheorie,5th ed.2010,marg.no.796.,這些理論被稱之為主觀理論與客觀理論。[注]See the descriptions of these by Bydlinski,Juristische Methodenlehre und Rechtsbegriff,2nd ed.1991,p.428 ff.; Engisch (n 23),p.112 ff.; Kramer (n 6 above),p.116 ff.; Larenz,Methodenlehre der Rechtswissenschaft,6th ed.1991,p.316 ff.; Rüthers/Fischer (n 24 above),marg.no.784 ff.; Zippelius,Juristische Methodenlehre,10th ed.2006,p.21 ff.
主觀理論,存在很多種類,意在尋求歷史性的立法意圖。此理論最杰出的倡導者之一,偉大的學說匯纂派學者伯恩哈德·溫德沙伊德(Bernhard Windscheid)曾尖銳地指出,法律的解釋者“必須考慮到所有可利用的資源,盡可能充分地按照立法者核心思想來思考問題”[注]Windscheid,Lehrbuch des Pandektenrechts,vol.I,7th ed.1891,p.52.。后來的支持者,尤其是菲利普·赫克(Philipp Heck)——圖賓根利益法學派最杰出的成員,不再尋求事實上的立法意圖,而是探究規(guī)范性的立法意圖。[注]See Heck,Gesetzesauslegung und Interessenjurisprudenz,AcP 112 (1914),1,50,53,64,77; following his approach Looschelders/Roth,Juristische Methodik im Proze? der Rechtsanwendung,1996,p.46 f.; Rüthers/Fischer (n 24 above),marg.no.790.因此,人們也可以將其說成原文本的[注]Kramer (n 6 above),p.116:“entstehungszeitlich”.或歷史目的性[注]Bydlinski (n 25 above),p.428:“historisch-teleologisch”.解釋。主觀主義者們傾向于通過指出立法目標和立法價值是如何對法官有約束力的[注]Pointedly Heck,Gesetzesauslegung und Interessenjurisprudenz,AcP 112 (1914),1,62:“Anyone who supports the objective theory is also a proponent of the deliberate circumvention of legislative intent.”來證明他們的立場,有時他們也認為這種解釋過程是更為科學的方法,其結果能夠經受得起理性批判和檢驗。[注]See Baden,Gesetzgebung und Gesetzesanwendung im Kommunikationsproze?,1977,p.186 ff.; R?dig,Die Theorie des juristischen Erkenntnisverfahrens,1973,p.181 ff.; see also Alexy,Theorie der juristischen Argumentation,2nd ed.1991,p.294,who sees argumentation based solely on a statute’s specific legislative history materials as a specific case of empirical argumentation.On falsifiability,or refutability,in scientific method,see the foundational study by Popper,The Logic of Scientific Discovery,1959.弗里德里?!た枴ゑT·薩維尼(Friedrich Karl von Savigny),現代成文法解釋的鼻祖[注]On his theory of interpretation,von Savigny,System des heutigen r?mischen Rechts,vol.1,1840,p.206 ff.,212 ff.; extensively Baldus,Gesetzesbindung,Auslegung und Analogie:R?mische Grundlagen und Bedeutung des 19.Jahrhunderts,in Riesenhuber (ed.),Europ?ische Methodenlehre,2nd ed.2010,§ 3 marg.no.55 ff.; Huber,Savignys Lehre von der Auslegung der Gesetze in heutiger Sicht,JZ 2003,1.,是否也被認為是主觀主義者則是一個有爭議的問題。[注]Dismissive Rückert,Idealismus,Jurisprudenz und Politik bei Friedrich Carl von Savigny,1984,p.354 ff.,according to whom Savigny’s approach cannot reasonably be called subjective nor objective; see also Schr?der,Recht als Wissenschaft,2001,p.224 ff.,241 f.; and Meder,Missverstehen und Verstehen,2004,p.125 ff.許多情況表明,主觀歷史性立法意圖在他的解釋理論中只起到輔助作用。[注]In detail Huber,Savignys Lehre von der Auslegung der Gesetze in heutiger Sicht,JZ 2003,1,12; agreeing Meder (n 33 above),p.125.
另一方面,客觀理論認為成文法解釋的目標是尋求法律文本本身的含義,這一過程具有客觀性和目的性,并會隨著時間的推移而有所改變。古斯塔夫·拉德布魯赫(Gustav Radbruch)在解釋此問題時,以一種風趣的但容易被濫用的說法指出:“法律會比其制定者更為聰明——事實上,法律一定比其制定者更聰明”。[注]Radbruch,Rechtsphilosophie,8th ed.1973,p.207; critical of this,for example R?hl/R?hl (n 24 above),p.629:“It is of course not the law that is smarter,but its interpreters who think themselves smarter.That is why they seek to break away from the historical legislator.”在解釋這個問題時,客觀主義者賓汀(Binding)、瓦克(Wach)和科納(Kohler)[注]Kramer (n 6 above),p.121.在1885—1886年三人執(zhí)政期間[注]See Binding,Handbuch des Strafrechts,vol.I,1885,p.450 ff.; Wach,Handbuch des deutschen Civilprozessrechts,vol.I,1885,p.254 ff.; Kohler,GrünhutsZ 13 (1886),1 ff.For greater detail on the historical-political background of these volumes see Caroni,Einleitungstitel des Zivilgesetzbuches,1996,p.92 ff.提出,一部制定法從剛一生效時就從其制定者身邊剝離開了,并已成為客觀存在:“從官方公布的那個時刻開始就立即會引起立法者整個立法意圖的根基和立法愿望的消失,也正是從那一時刻起,立法就變成了它自己,承載著自己的力量和動力,充滿了自己的含義?!盵注]Binding (n 37 above),p.454 referring to Th?l,Einführung in das deutsche Privatrecht,1851,p.150.另外,客觀主義者訴諸有科學性的法官榮譽感,強烈反對立法史上的盲目信仰:“有關立法史的研究只不過是司法常務官的艱辛工作,而不是科學”[注]Fuchs,Recht und Wahrheit in unserer heutigen Justiz,1908,p.53.,自由法學(Freirecht)運動的一個言辭尖銳的成員恩斯特·富克斯(Ernst Fuchs)痛斥道。
2.主觀理論的早期反對觀點
早些時候,許多觀點都反對主觀理論[注]For a systematic list of these see Heck,Gesetzesauslegung und Interessenjurisprudenz,1914,p.67 ff.,who speaks of intention,form,trust,and amendment arguments; following this approach Hassold,Wille des Gesetzgebers oder objektiver Sinn des Gesetzes-subjektive oder objektive Theorie der Gesetzesauslegung,ZZP 94 (1981),192,207 ff.; for a differing classification see Baden,Zum Regelungsgehalt von Gesetzgebungsmaterialien,in R?dig (ed.),Studien zu einer Theorie der Gesetzgebung,1976,p.369,384 ff.,who speaks of enactment,uncertainty and flexibility arguments; agreeing R?hl/R?hl (n 24 above),p.628.,從而也間接地否認了立法史的使用。其中一個觀點是,在議會民主制中,不存在有特定意圖的立法者[注]Already writing about the issue of “collective statements” Bülow,Gesetz und Richteramt,1885,p.35 f.; more recently Thienel,Der Rechtsbegriff der Reinen Rechtslehre-Eine Standortbestimmung,Festschrift Friedrich Koja,1998,p.161,178 ff.; Sch?ffer,Festschrift Heinz Peter Rill,1995,p.595,602 f.; on the “inexistence” of collective intent see also Kelsen,Hauptprobleme der Staatsrechtslehre,2nd ed.1923,p.169 ff.;相反,現代立法者被認為是無名的存在,是多個體的組合,因此他們也被賦予了不同的立法意圖。[注]Thus Zweigert,Juristische Interpretation,Studium generale 7 (1954),380,382.然而,這種被認為是“意圖論”的觀點未能認識到:這個問題并不是某個個人立法者的意圖[注]See among others R?hl/R?hl (n 24 above),p.628:“A legislator’s intent is nothing more than an effective metaphor for a historical context.”是否存在的問題,而是該法條可歸因于誰的問題[注]Convincing Christensen,Was hei?t Gesetzesbindung,1989,p.59; equally so Jestaedt,Grundrechtsentfaltung im Gesetz,1999,p.355:“normative imputation,not a true psychic attribution”.,這個問題在法哲學[注]For example Dworkin (n 11 above),p.342 ff.中可能會導致異想天開(或偉大的探險),但這對于現實的股份公司法研究者們來說應該是很熟悉的。正如股份公司具有規(guī)范性意志一樣,其意志通過公司機關的多數決定來實現[注]On the majority or agency model MacCallum,Legislative Intent,in Summers (ed.),Essays in Legal Philosophy,1968,p.237 ff.,261 ff.; agreeing Cramer,AJP 2006,515,516; Müller/Christensen,Juristische Methodik,vol.I,10th ed.2009,marg.no.361 f.,作為多數決定的立法者的規(guī)范性意圖同樣可以被看作是一種理論建構[注]Along these lines Hassold,Wille des Gesetzgebers oder objektiver Sinn des Gesetzes-subjektive oder objektive Theorie der Gesetzesauslegung,ZZP 94,(1981),192,207:“Legislator is a normative term,a notional subject,to whom the law’s command is imputed”; very similar Hotz,Richterrecht zwischen methodischer Bindung und Beliebigkeit?,2008,p.80:“normative construct”.或是民主理論的一種必要擬制[注]Thus Looschelders/Roth (n 27 above),p.47 who add,that the natural plurality of opinions is not opposed to the assumption of a unified normative intent.。
第二個反對觀點提出這樣的問題:立法史文獻的零碎化特性會導致立法意圖不具有確定性。在某些情況下的確如此,但在法院和法律工作者可以方便獲取立法史資料時卻并非如此。[注]Rüthers/Fischer (n 24 above),marg.no.791.研究最近的法律史所需要的努力是最少的,因為大多數材料可以以電子方式獲得;至于年代較久的成文法,為了評估這種研究的實用性與合理性,“解釋的時效性”[注]Jabloner,Die Gesetzesmaterialien als Mittel der historischen Auslegung,Festschrift Herbert Schambeck,1994,p.441,447 f.確實是個問題。[注]Thus von Arnauld,M?glichkeiten und Grenzen dynamischer Interpretation von Rechtsnormen,Rechtstheorie 32 (2001),465,475.作為這個觀點的另一個說法被稱為“不確定性觀點”,即立法史易被操縱和濫用。[注]For example Binding (n 37 above),p.472 f.不幸的是,這種情況也不能被排除,也許是因為某些集團出于自身利益,可能會將一些觀點“夾帶”進立法史材料中,抑或因為法律工作者和法官可能更喜歡有選擇性地使用史料,而不是整體查閱。德國聯邦或州的機構應當對“立法外包”的做法給予特殊警惕。[注]See Battis,ZRP,Outsourcing von Gesetzesentwürfen?,2009,201; as well as Krüper,Lawfirm-legibus solutus?,JZ 2010,655.但是,這些觀點都不認為從一開始就禁止立法史的使用是正確的。
最后,主觀理論常常因為解釋太過于關注過去而受到批判,有點“死人支配活人”[注]Ehrlich,Die juristische Logik,2nd ed.1925,p.160; recently also Baldus (n 32 above),§ 3 marg.no.219:“We must not submit to persons from the past,but only to the law,and only currently applicable law at that.”的意味。據稱,只有客觀目的性解釋可以使法律不斷適應新的規(guī)范情形。但是被稱為“修正觀點或靈活觀點”的這種看法,是對主觀理論中法律發(fā)展作用的誤解。[注]Clearly elaborated by Hassold,Wille des Gesetzgebers oder objektiver Sinn des Gesetzes-subjektive oder objektive Theorie der Gesetzesauslegung,ZZP 94 (1981),192,210:“The boundary between the judges’ authority to develop the law and the legislators’ legislative prerogative is not the object of the dispute between the subjective and objective theories of interpretation.”主觀主義者也并非堅決地堅持一項規(guī)范的歷史含義[注]See R?hl/R?hl (n 24 above),p.628:“The subjective theory is not so rigid as to eternally bind a judge to a statute.”,但的確要求任何改變都要進行披露并經過法院以及學術界的合理論證。[注]See for example Kramer (n 6 above),p.31 f.這種“論證要求”[注]Meier-Hayoz,in Berner Kommentar ZGB,1962,Art.1 marg.no.155.并非不必要的負擔;相反,用一種陳腐的但卻必不可少的措辭來說,它會促進方法論的誠信化。[注]Also of this view Rüthers/Fischer (n 24 above),marg.no.730d,794,813 and further references; also Neuner,Die Rechtsfindung contra legem,2nd ed.2005,p.113; as well as Wank,Die Auslegung von Gesetzen,4th ed.2008,p.32:“Recourse to the objective theory,though,requires that such a process of aging can be proven with regard to a particular statute.This evidence,however,is rarely bothered with by the adherents of the objective theory.”
3.論辯的目前態(tài)勢
經過了許多年的論辯后,斗士們似乎都已經精疲力竭了,所有重要的爭論都進行了交換。[注]Already of this view Stratenwerth,Festschrift Oscar Adolf Germann,1969,p.257,258; more recently Schluep,Einladung zur Rechtstheorie,2006,marg.no.1117,according to whom the controversy in the field of statutory interpretation is being led “to the point of redundancy”.在法律學說中,客觀理論通常被視為主流學說[注]See for example Engisch (n 23 above),p.113:“Today the objective theory even if in many forms-definitely prevails”; also of this view Rüthers/Fischer (n 24 above),marg.no.798.,但仔細考察后會發(fā)現,中間派立場占了上風[注]Representative of this approach and well considered Kramer (n 6 above),p.127 ff.,133 ff.; also Engisch (n 23 above),p.114 with n 25 and p.123 with n 47; as well as Hassold,Wille des Gesetzgebers oder objektiver Sinn des Gesetzes-subjektive oder objektive Theorie der Gesetzesauslegung,ZZP 94 (1981),192,209:“With regard to intermediary methods it would make sense to take elements of the subjective and of the objective theory and to combine them,or to apply one primarily and use the other one alternatively if the first fails,or to unite both in a graduated process of interpretation.”; additionally Ott,Juristische Methode in der Sackgasse?,2006,p.54,according to whom “both points of view are to be considered in every case”.,他們有時以客觀解釋為基礎[注]As typified by Larenz (n 25 above),p.316:“Underlying each of the two theories is a partial truth; therefore neither can be approved without restriction.”,and p.318:“It would be going much too far however,to deny that the regulatory intent of historical legislators and their discernable normative conception could have any significance for interpretation.”,有時則基于主觀解釋[注]Exemplified by Rüthers/Fischer (n 24 above),marg.no.820:“The statutory interpretation problem cannot be reduced to an alternative between a time-of-origin and a current validity statutory application.The ‘subjective’ and the ‘objective’ theories of statutory interpretation each cover valid aspects of the issue.”。如今沒有人[注]Thus,very clearly Hassold,Wille des Gesetzgebers oder objektiver Sinn des Gesetzes-subjektive oder objektive Theorie der Gesetzesauslegung,ZZP 94 (1981),192,202.贊成禁止使用立法史的“嚴格”客觀理論[注]Thus Cosack,Lehrbuch des deutschen Bürgerlichen Rechts,vol.1,4th ed.1907,p.38:“as an interpretational command” without “the least utility”; similarly Kohler,Lehrbuch des bürgerlichen Rechts,vol.1,1906,p.131; still less harsh also Kohler,Ueber die Interpretation von Gesetzen,GrünhutsZ 13 (1886),1,38.,正如沒有人會支持將解釋者永遠綁定在歷史性立法意圖上的“純粹”主觀理論一樣。[注]Thus,with the same clarity Wank (n 59 above),p.32.成文法的重要性常常與其年齡有關;比起當今法律,立法意圖在較早法律中的重要性較小。[注]See for example Kramer (n 6 above),p.136 f.; Wank (n 59 above),p.34; Zweigert,Festschrift Eduard B?tticher,1969,p.442,447; also Schluep (n 60 above),marg.no.1119:“Say a statute [...] was drafted the day before yesterday,promulgated yesterday and is applicable today,then,barring an act of God,there is no reason why the courts should be allowed to develop a new understanding of the law between the day before yesterday and today.”; critical however Baden (n 40 above),p.369,392.據說,有時歷史性立法意圖對于解決未達成解釋共識的問題更具有規(guī)范上的重要意義,而對于已達成總體解決方案的問題來說則沒有那么重要。[注]Thus Schroth,Theorie und Praxis subjektiver Auslegung im Strafrecht,1983,p.105.結構主義法學(strukturierende rechtslehre)的支持者將立法史的運用視為系統性觀點的例外,因為基于文本本身的解釋會將往往孤立的規(guī)范性文本放到具有更廣泛選擇的其他文本中,并且最終將其整合到語義網上。[注]In greater detail Christensen (n 44 above),p.60 ff.最后,某些學者并不將歷史性解釋視為眾多解釋中的一種標準,而是將它視為用于改善其他標準的一種橫向標準。[注]Thus Baldus (n 32 above),§ 3 marg.no.220.
從傳統上來講,德國聯邦憲法法院傾向于客觀理論。該法院自1952年做出一個早期判決之后,這種態(tài)度就從未發(fā)生過變化,其認為立法解釋目標的標準說法是:“立法條文的解釋由立法者的具體意圖來決定,正如法律條文的措辭本身及其文本語意所表達的那樣。另一方面,立法機關的主觀意圖就法律條文的含義方面并不具有權威性。只有在雙符合上述原理的基礎上進一步確定解釋,或者當其消除了僅采用上述方法而不能減輕的疑惑時,法律條文的歷史發(fā)展才具有意義”。[注]BVerfGE 1,301,312; affirmed in BVerfGE 10,234,244; 11,126,130; and established case law.此外,歷史性立法意圖“只應被視為成文法本身足夠肯定的表達”[注]BVerfGE 11,126,130.。在近些年的立法文本中,立法意圖更加受到重視。[注]See BVerfGE 54,277,297:“Particularly for the interpretation of new and substantively novel types of law,as long as literal meaning and context leave open doubts,significant weight must be given to the legislative intent of the legislators evident in the legislative procedure.In such a situation,the interpretation may not disregard an obvious legislative intent.”然而,即使在面對較早的法律時,德國聯邦憲法法院也是很謹慎地研究其發(fā)展歷史,并持續(xù)不斷地尋找立法意圖。[注]An in-depth analysis of the case law in Sachs,DVBl 1984,73; for a current example see BVerfG NJW 2009,1469,1471 f.para.45 ff.這樣,理論上的主張與實踐中的方法論經常產生重大的分歧。[注]Along the same lines Rüthers/Fischer (n 24 above),marg.no.800:“In legal fact,the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany generally attributes particular,often even pivotal significance to the historical argument in its statutory interpretations.In this respect,its theoretical proclamation in favour of the ‘objective method’ is nothing but lip service.”即便從《聯邦憲法法院法》(Bundesverfassungsgerichtsgesetz,BVerfGG)第31條的意義上來說,聯邦憲法法院的方法論主張也不具有約束力,這是很不幸的。[注]See Rennert,in Umbach/Clemens,BVerfGG,1st ed.1992,§ 31 marg.no.74:“Methodological statements have no formal legal quality.”同樣,在涉及《法院組織法》(Gerichtsverfassungsgesetz,GVG)第132條的一件訴訟中,將這個問題委托給德國聯邦司法法院最高合議庭、大參議院(Gro?er Senat)以及聯合參議院( Vereinigter Gro?er Senat),并不能解釋清楚這里的方法論上的不一致。[注]See Simon,Gesetzesauslegung im Strafrecht,2005,p.585:“This process only serves to clarify legal issues,but not what method should be applied in order to find a solution to a legal problem.This leads to the unfortunate consequence that contradictory methodological statements can persist without resolution,or even that diverging statements can go unnoticed.”
近來,爭論又開始激烈起來,并呈現出政治哲學[注]See Zippelius (n 25 above),p.23:“To put it bluntly:the interpretation someone chooses depends on their philosophy of government and State.”; agreeing Schr?der,Festschrift Ulrich Eisenhardt,2007,p.125.以及憲法學的色彩。許多有影響力的學者認為,方法論問題也常常是憲法問題[注]See Rüthers/Fischer (n 24 above),marg.no.705 ff.,他們呼吁回到主觀理論,或至少更加強調基于歷史的解釋[注]See Depenheuer,Politischer Wille und Verfassungs?nderung,DVBl.1987,809,812 f.; Hillgruber,Richterliche Rechtsfortbildung.Demokratische und rechtsstaatliche Bedenken gegen eine scheinbare Selbstverst?ndlichkeit,Journal für Rechtspolitik 9 (2001),281; Jestaedt (n 44 above),p.328 ff.,338 ff.; Neuner (n 59 above),p.112 ff.; Rüthers/Fischer (n 24 above),marg.no.780 ff.; see also Auer,ZEuP 2008,516,528 ff.:民主的合憲性基礎、分權原則以及法治全都要求法院仔細考察立法史。以他們的觀點來看,這是適用依照憲法所制定的法律不可或缺的第一個(而非最后的)步驟。[注]Thus,with particular emphasis Rüthers/Fischer (n 24 above),marg.no.812; similarly Biaggini,Methodik in der Rechtsanwendung,in Peters/Sch?fer (eds.),Grundprobleme der Auslegung aus Sicht des ?ffentlichen Rechts,2004,p.27,42,according to which historical interpretation is a “necessary (transitional) step for normative interpretation in a democratic constitutional State.”如果立法一致性原則與體系兼容性原則更加受到重視的話,那么歷史性解釋的地位就會得到進一步提高。[注]See Mehde/Hanke,Gesetzgeberische Begründungspflichten und-obliegenheiten,ZG 2010,381,397:“If the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany takes consistency seriously,then it must always look in detail at the legislative background and base its decision upon it.”
在一個被廣泛關注的刑事案件中,聯邦憲法法院的合議庭裁決觸及了這些問題。[注]See BVerfGE 122,248 = NJW 2009,1469; commenting this M?llers,Nachvollzug ohne Ma?stabbildung:richterliche Rechtsfortbildung in der Rechtsprechung des Bundesverfassungsgerichts,JZ 2009,668; Rüthers,Trendwende im BVerfG?,NJW 2009,1461.根據多數意見,包括方法論選擇在內的成文法解釋,是由民事法庭來決定的問題,而且,這類決議將不會由聯邦憲法法院進行廣泛的審查。聯邦憲法法院會限制其司法審查范圍,以確定民事法庭在解釋法律的過程中是否尊重了基本的立法意圖以及是否合理采用了被認可的解釋方法,即便其涉及有關權力分配的《德國基本法》第20條第2款第2句以及第20條第3款的規(guī)定。[注]See BVerfG NJW 2009,1469,1470 para.30.教授及法官Vobkuhle,Osterloh以及Difabio則持反對意見,他們回擊了有關讓解釋方法論讀起來像每日頌書一樣的做法。他們認為憲法所固定下來的賦予法官進一步發(fā)展法律的權利,一直都具有局限性。如果立法者擁有一種明確的立場,法官就不能夠修改法律去適應他或她的法律政策觀念并由此在司法上提出一個并不會被議會接受的觀點。[注]See BVerfG NJW 2009,1469,1479 para.97.立法者事實上是否已獲得這種地位,只取決于是否采用了被認可的解釋方法。任何解釋的出發(fā)點必須是法律條文的詞句本義,而法律條文并非總能指示出“立法者的(主觀的或客觀的)意圖”[注]BVerfG NJW 2009,1469,1477 para.98.。為了回答支持這部法律的規(guī)制理論問題,在這部法律的立法史及其體系結構中尋找線索很重要,而且弄清該部法律在法律實踐中是如何被理解的也很重要,這往往也能提供線索。自有爭議的規(guī)范生效以來,立法者并未采取任何行動這一事實不能默認某部法律的特別或現行的適用,拒絕立法也不能由此得出立法者在向法院推卸其解決爭端責任這樣的結論。立法者沒有義務定期重申立法意圖以維持規(guī)范的有效性。[注]See BVerfG NJW 2009,1469,1477 para.101.
在對成文法解釋的目標做了上述初步的論述后,也應當細致考察有關立法史運用的若干個案問題。
1.立法史材料的選擇及重要性
如上所述,在分工的過程中有大量的參與者承擔著現今德國(聯邦)法律的制定工作。參與此過程的主體通常是政府主管部門,這些部門會提出一項行政法案的草稿;聯邦政府在進行跨部門咨詢的基礎上,會在議會上介紹聯邦政府法案;并向聯邦議院(Bundestag)及聯邦參議院(Bundersrat)以及他們的各自委員會進行介紹。有時,專家組也需要努力促進一部法律的發(fā)展。[注]In this regard see Cramer,Der Bonus als Malus-zur überw?lzung von Gesch?ftsverlusten auf Arbeitnehmer,AJP 2006,515,519.這些準備工作的所有文件都是經常開放的,并且公之于眾,這樣,問題來了,這些材料中哪些可以被用于立法史目的以及在什么程度上被利用?
首先,區(qū)別在于行政部門與立法部門起草的文件。[注]See Cramer,Der Bonus als Malus-zur überw?lzung von Gesch?ftsverlusten auf Arbeitnehmer,AJP 2006.515,517.議會是憲法指定的立法機構這一事實就證明了上述差異。然而,其較大的合法性與其在專業(yè)技術問題上的較少經驗形成了對比。在磋商與爭論期間,國會議員經常只提出一項立法草案的一般意旨,盡可能使用模糊措辭,以使每個聽眾均可用自己的想法補白。[注]Emphatically Pawlowski,Methodenlehre für Juristen,3rd ed.1999,marg.no.620; see also Larenz (n 25 above),p.329.因此,這些言論通常并未向法院表明某一特定條文的法律含義。換句話說,這一滿載妥協的政見形成過程進一步阻礙了對法律相關的立法意圖的探尋。[注]See Luhmann,Das Recht der Gesellschaft,1995,p.420.因此,法院通常參考立法過程中的早期材料是不足為奇的。[注]See F.Schmidt,Zur Methode der Rechtsfindung,1976,p.24 ff.; concurring Pawlowski (n 91 above),marg.no.618.
在法律理論中,基于“契約理論”(Paktentheorie),(政府的)解釋性備忘錄被視為立法意圖的暗示。根據這一理論,不在審議和決議的過程中展開自己觀點的議會,會認可法案起草者在(政府)解釋性備忘錄中所表達的意圖。[注]Probably first W?chter,Abhandlungen aus dem Strafrechte,I,1835,p.242 ff.; in more recent times Bydlinski (n 25 above),p.431 f.; Engisch (n 23 above),p.122; Neuner (n 59 above),p.104; MünchKommBGB/S?cker,5th ed.2006,Einleitung marg.no.110; critically Larenz (n 25 above),p.329; also Canaris,Karl Larenz,in Grundmann/Riesenhuber (eds.),Deutschsprachige Zivilrechtslehrer des 20.Jahrhunderts in Berichten ihrer Schüler,vol.2,2010,p.263,297 with n 129,according to whom Parliament’s burden to contradict affects the separation of powers in a risky way and leaves far too much room for the contingencies of the legislative process.如果一個人將腦海中產生的合同與意圖的概念置于一旁,而是更關注分工過程中的立法,那么此理論的基礎便是合理的。[注]Thus Müller/Christensen (n 46 above),marg.no.362,who liken the legislative process to a “competitive role playing game”.進一步考慮到聯邦政府與議會的多數通常在政治上具有一致性,我們有理由假設政府的解釋備忘錄與議會的投票相符。[注]Convincing,Looschelders/Roth (n 27 above),p.159.
2.口頭陳述
通常,只有文獻才被認為是對立法史的證明。理論上講,我們當然可以想象,那些參與過法律發(fā)展過程之人的正式口頭陳述也可能產生重要的影響。目前的法學方法論很少提到這點并且?guī)缀跏且宦膳懦狻注]See for example Bydlinski (n 25 above),p.449 f.:“The limits of the human capacity to remember and of our lifespan on one hand,and the requirements of legal certainty and equal treatment on the other do indeed speak against different interpretations of general-abstract norms depending on whether or not particular persons are still available as sources of information.”; contra Reinicke/Reinicke,Zur Frage,ob das Gericht berechtigt ist,über den Willen des Gesetzgebers,Beweis zu erheben,MDR 1952,141,142.歷史經驗在這方面更為豐富,在1910年,柏林上訴法院(Kammergericht)為了了解委員會會議錄以及作為1906年5月《船員供給法案》(Manns-chaftsversorgungsgesetz)立法性解釋基礎的那些材料,對德意志帝國議會委員會成員、帝國議會成員以及宣誓的政府成員進行了審查。[注]The Court of Appeals’ decision-as far as one can tell-was not published and only mentioned in newspaper reports; dismissive,Klein,Gesetzesuaslegung mittels Zeugenschaft,JW 1911,834; approving,Salmann,Gesetzesauslegung mittels Beweisaufnahme.Eine Entgegnung,JW 1912,321.這個方法被德意志帝國最高法院看好:“[法官]的行動范圍不限于審查立法性印刷品和其他文件,在適當情況下,還可通過審查證人或其他了解信息的人,來持續(xù)闡明并發(fā)現特別程序”。[注]RGZ 81,276,282.相比之下,澳大利亞最高法院于1950年決定,不允許訊問作為“立法者意圖”證人的法案起草者。[注]See OGH JBl.1950,507,judicial principle 2.“這個觀點遭到特別強烈的拒絕。這會導致判例法的完全平庸化以及違背憲法固定下來的法院獨立原則。一旦法律在聯邦報紙上公布,其解釋就變成了法院的問題。過去的起草者不可以再參與到這個程序中?!盵注]OGH JBl.1950,507,508.為了支持這個立場,人們可能會補充道:內閣或政府成員為了自己的利益后來可能會傾向于以充當證人作證的方式來糾正最初沒有預見到的問題或者最近立法中不可預見的結果。因此,也存在政治爭論將會被帶到法院面前的這種風險。
3.暗示理論
在現代解釋方法論中未解決的難題是,歷史性立法意圖是否僅僅被視作已制定的文本所暗示的內容,即使其內容并不完整。許多學者即便在今天也在不斷地提倡暗示理論(Andeutungstheorie)。[注]See Hassold,Wille des Gesetzgebers oder objektiver Sinn des Gesetzes-subjektive oder objektive Theorie der Gesetzesauslegung,ZZP 94 (1981),192,208; Sch?ffer (n 41 above),p.595,615; it appears also Kramer (n 6 above),p.129.這樣做時,他們試圖反駁客觀主義者所認為的法律形式觀點或法律制定觀點,這種觀點主張,只有與憲法相符的法律才有約束力,而非那些不足為信的史料。[注]See Hassold,Wille des Gesetzgebers oder objektiver Sinn des Gesetzes-subjektive oder objektive Theorie der Gesetzesauslegung,ZZP 94 (1981),192,208:“This-per se reasonable-argument is defeated by the allusion theory.”聯邦憲法法院似乎也遵循這個原則。[注]See BVerfGE 11,126,130,which states that legislative intent “[can] only be considered insofar as it was sufficiently expressed in the statute.”如果尋求比較法,《葡萄牙民法典》則表明了同樣的觀點;該法典第9條第(2)項規(guī)定,如果立法意圖沒有在法律文本中提及則是無關的。[注]The exact text of the Code reads:“N?o pode,porém,ser considerado pelo intérprete o pensamento legislativo que n?o tenha na letra da lei um mínimo de correspondência verbal,ainda que imperfeitamente expresso.”相反的觀點也勢頭正猛,認為暗示理論在方法論意義上是過時的[注]Thus Rüthers/Fischer (n 24 above),marg.no.799 together with marg.no.734 ff.; also critical Jestaedt (n 44 above),p.340 f.,arguing that the form of the norm’s development cannot without further elaboration be identified with its content; general criticism with 16 individual points against the allusion theory in Simon (n 78 above),p.232-257.或者只有經過改良才會被接受[注]Thus Wank (n 59 above),p.33:“If the theory is extended so that indicators of legislative intent could be found with the assistance of all interpretative criteria [...] it might be possible to support the allusion theory.”。
的確,暗示理論太過于注重字面含義(Wortlautgrenze)?!皃raeter verbal egis”(即,與法律并非直接矛盾的)[注]Kramer (n 6 above),p.139.歷史資料——即使價值不大,也能提供一些解釋線索。[注]Differing Kramer (n 6 above),p.139.“contra verbal egis”(即與成文法直接矛盾的)[注]Kramer (n 6 above),p.139.資料卻完全不同,因為使用這些資料意味著用非規(guī)范性文件來對抗規(guī)范性文件。[注]See Müller/Christensen (n 46 above),marg.no.441; arriving at the same result Kramer (n 6 above),p.140.然而,這種資料仍被用于修正法律起草過程中的錯誤,或是對過于寬泛的規(guī)定進行限制性解釋(即目的論的減縮)。[注]On both of these cases Kramer (n 6 above),p.140 f.
4.立法史有約束力嗎?
最后一個問題是,立法史的解釋及評注是否對法院產生約束力。當下絕大多數作者都反對這個觀點[注]Differing however Gelzer,Pl?doyer für ein objektiv-historisches Verst?ndnis des Gesetzes,recht 2 (2005),37,45.;相反,立法史僅僅是對法院有“指導作用”[注]F.Schmidt (n 93 above),p.19.的工具這一說法,似乎贏得了廣泛共識。但在涉及歷史性解釋方法與其他解釋方法之間哪個相對更重要的問題上卻出現了分歧。法律話語理論的支持者有時會提議一種排序,即將以立法意圖為基礎的那些觀點置于其他觀點之上。[注]See Alexy (n 31 above),p.305:“As a pragmatic rule one could take the burden-of-argument rule:arguments that express a strict adherence to the literal meaning of a statute or to historical legislative intent take priority over other arguments unless reasonable reasons can be put forward why other arguments might be given precedence.”; agreeing von Arnauld,M?glichkeiten und Grenzen dynamischer Interpretation von Rechtsnormen,Rechtstheorie 32 (2001),467,476 f.; Grigoleit,Das historische Argument in der geltendrechtlichen Privatrechtsdogmatik,ZNR 2008,259,263 f.,270:In relation to objective-purposive interpretation,historical-original statements are presumptively given priority,but it can,however,be overridden by serious purposive considerations.”; dismissive Heun,Original Intent und Wille des historischen Verfassungsgebers,A?R 116 (1991),185,206.而且,越來越多的學者認為,盡管法院沒有絕對義務去遵照立法史,但法院卻有查閱資料的義務。[注]See Kramer (n 6 above),p.138; Raisch,Vom Nutzen der überkommenen Auslegungskanones für die praktische Rechtsanwendung,1988,p.32; Rüthers/Fischer (n 24 above),marg.no.730c,789,794; Neuner,(n 59 above),p.104 f.; already of this view Heck,Gesetzesauslegung und Interessenjurisprudenz,AcP 112 (1914),1,114 f.,206.
長時間以來,英國呈現給對方法論感興趣的觀察者一個截然相反的畫面[注]Excellent comparative law treatment in Hager,Rechtsmethoden in Europa,2009,marg.no.138 ff.; Vogenauer,Die Auslegung von Gesetzen in England und auf dem Kontinent,2001,vol.2,p.967 ff.:自1769年Millar訴Taylor案以后,根據排除規(guī)則[注]Looking back at Pepper v.Hart [1993] AC 593,630D:“Under present law,there is a general rule that references to Parliamentary material as an aid to statutory construction is not permissible (‘the exclusionary rule’).”,議會辯論內容不得用于成文法解釋[注]Millar v.Taylor (1769) 4 Burr 2303,2332 (Willes J) (KB):“The sense and meaning of an Act of Parliament must be collected from what it says when passed into law,and not from the history of changes it underwent in the House where it took its rise.That history is not known to the other house or to the Sovereign.”,它曾被幽默地描述為“沒有英國法官在床底下看”[注]Herbert,Bardot M.P.? And other Modern Misleading Cases,1964,p.167.。為了論證排除規(guī)則的合理性,人們提出了一連串憲法問題和實際問題[注]In summary,Pepper v.Hart [1993] AC 539,633A (Lord Browne-Wilkinson):“Thus the reasons put forward for the present rule are first,that it preserves the constitutional proprieties leaving Parliament to legislate in words and the courts (not Parliamentary speakers),to construe the meaning of the words finally enacted; second,the practical difficulty of the expense of researching Parliamentary material which would arise if the material could be looked at; third,the need for the citizen to have access to a known defined text which regulates his legal rights; fourth,the improbability of finding helpful guidance from Hansard.”; in depth Vogenauer (n 117 above),p.1208 ff.:首先,受《權利法案》(1689年)第9條[注]The text reads “That the freedom of speech,and debates or proceedings in parliament,ought not to be impeached or questioned in any court or place out of parliament.”所保護的議會成員不受拘束的言論自由權,不允許議員在議會上發(fā)表的言論被討論,更不允許法院對其進行批評;[注]See for example Davis v.Johnson [1979] AC 264,350 (Lord Scarman):“Secondly,consel are not permitted to refer to Hansard in argument.So long as this rule is maintained by Parliament (it is not the creation of the judges),it must be wrong for the judge to make any judicial use of proceedings in Parliament for the purposes of interpreting statutes.”其次,法律的確定性要求成文法本身是公開的、易于理解的;[注]See for example Fothergill v.Monarch Airlines Ltd.[1981] AC 251,279 (Lord Diplock):“[...] the need for legal certainty demands that the rules by which the citizen is to be bound should be ascertainable by him (or,more realistically,by a competent lawyer advising him) by reference to identifiable sources that are publicly accessible.”最后,相關材料的搜集工作比較耗時,并且經常毫無收獲,就像大海撈針,只可惜“針多半不在那兒”[注]Lord Reid,(1972—73) XII J.S.P.T.L.22,28 (1972—73).。
在過去幾年里,出現了對排除規(guī)則的批判觀點。在1977年與1981年的兩個判決中,丹寧大法官——可能是20世紀最有影響力的英國法官以及案卷主事官,承認秘密查閱過英國議會記事錄[注]See Davis v.Johnson [1979] AC 264,276 f.(Lord Denning); Hadmore Production v.Hamilton [1983] 1 AC 191,201 (Lord Denning):“But in cases of extreme difficulty,I have often dared to do my own research.I have read Hansard just as if I had been present in the House during a debate on the Bill.And I am not the only one to do so.”、議會辯論打印稿[注]The name stems from the Hansard family.Luke Hansard was the printer of the Journal of the House of Commons from 1774 to 1828,his sons and grandsons carried on the business.,并且對“法官不得不在不開燈的情況下,在黑暗中探索一項法案的含義”之原因產生懷疑。[注]See Davis v.Johnson [1979] AC 264,276 (Lord Denning).在1969年發(fā)布的一份有關成文法解釋的詳細報告中,法律委員會確實承認,立法史在解釋法律方面具有重要作用,但是由于一些現實原因,并不建議基于此而撤銷排除規(guī)則。[注]See The Law Commission (No.21) and The Scottish Law Commission (No.11),The Interpretation of Statutes,1969,p.31 f.
1992年佩珀訴哈特案(Pepper v.Hart)的標志性判決[注][1993] AC 593.帶來了方法論范式的改變[注]See also Brudney,Below The Surface:Comparing Legislative History Usage by The House of Lords and the Supreme Court,85 Wash.U.L.Rev.1,6 (2007):“Pepper v.Hart was a watershed decision in constitutional as well as practical terms.”,這份判決涉及稅收法案的解釋問題:一所私立學校與該校教師達成了協議,即學校收取教師孩子的學費數額是正常學費的五分之一。對這個財務效益的征稅估值出現了爭議,根據1976年的財政法案,稅收根據其“成本”來核定。估值的計算方法是基于學費的平均成本,但是教師們認為應當采用附加成本或邊際成本方式定價,因為私立學校并沒有開足馬力運行,所以這些成本實質上較少。恰巧在議會辯論期間,財政司司長特別強調說,附加成本應該是構成上述計算的基礎。作為回應,英國上議院最初打算站在估稅員一邊,在一份6:1的裁決中背離了排除規(guī)則。由布朗尼·威爾金森(Browne-Wilkinson)大法官撰寫的多數判決認為,沒有什么合理的理由不讓法院通過考慮立法史來支持立法意圖。[注]See Pepper v.Hart [1993] AC 593,635A (Lord Browne-Wilkinson):“But in a few cases it may emerge that the very question was considered by Parliament in passing the legislation.Why in such a case should the courts blind themselves to a clear indication of what Parliament intended in using those words?”然而,英國上議院規(guī)定了放寬適用排除規(guī)則的三個先決條件。首先,需要被解釋的條文必須是模糊的、不清晰的或者是會導致荒謬結果的。其次,只有在議會上由部長或其他法案的發(fā)起人做出的陳述才有可能被考慮。Drittens müsse eine solche Stellungnahme eindeutig sein(第三,這種觀點必須是明確的、清晰的)。第三,有爭論的陳述必須是明確的。[注]See Pepper v.Hart [1993] AC 593,640C (Lord Browne-Wilkinson).麥凱(Mackay)大法官則提出了異議,他認為,在新的解釋規(guī)則下,訴訟當事人將不得不在每個案件中都梳理立法史材料,這會導致訴訟費用的劇增。[注]See Pepper v.Hart [1993] AC 593 614G (Lord Mackay).
人們對于佩珀訴哈特案的反應是復雜的。學術批評主要集中在憲法含義上:在不缺乏立法行為的情況下,負責部長的觀點就會代表立法意圖,這違背了分權原則。[注]See Styles,The Rule of Parliament:Statutory Interpretation after Pepper v Hart,Oxford Journal of Legal Studies 14 (1994),151,157:“[A]s the vast majority of authoritative statements by promoters are in practice made by ministers,the referral by the courts to such statements will in practice mean that the courts are directly referring to the opinions of the government ministers.Thus not only have the courts formally surrendered their powers in favour of Parliament but they have in fact surrendered them to the Government-to the executive acting through the legislature.This would constitute a major power shift in the British constitution.”; in the same vein Kavanagh,Pepper v.Hart and Matters of Constitutional Principle,L.Q.Rev.121 (2005),98,102.這種成文法解釋方法將會促使政府夾帶那些有爭議的觀點于議會辯論之中,而這些觀點在政治上又過于敏感而不能體現在成文法中,但會記錄在議會記事錄中。[注]See Kavanagh (n 135 above),106 f.:“The rule in Pepper v.Hart contains an obvious temptation for the executive to bypass the burdensome enactment process in order to specify the details of legislation through the less onerous route of expressions on intent in Parliamentary debates.”; Munday,Explanatory Notes and Statutory Interpretation,Justice of the Peace 170 (2006),124,127:“It is also a concern that,through this medium,interpretations could be deliberately embedded by the more cunning political managers or by those who head the dominant political groupings.”另外,上議院并沒有考慮存在統一的立法意圖這種假設所引發(fā)的認識論問題。[注]See Munday,Interpretation of Legislation in England:The Expanding Quest for Parliamentary Intention,RabelsZ 75 (2011) (forthcoming); exhaustively too Lord Steyn,Pepper v Hart; A Re-examination,Oxford Journal of Legal Studies 21 (2001),59,64 ff.
法官群體已從最初對佩珀訴哈特案的熱情中擺脫出來,逐漸變得清醒?;舴蚵?Hoffmann)大法官對這一判決帶來的法律成本的增加以及訴訟效率的降低感到惋惜,并認為,麥凱(Mackay)大法官——當時持相反態(tài)度,被證明是更好的預言家,他預測到議會辯論記錄與律師肩負的巨大的調研壓力相比毫無幫助。[注]See Robinson v.Secretary of State,[2002] N.Ir.L.R.390,405 (Lord Hoffmann):“Speaking for myself,I think that Lord Mackay has turned out to be the better prophet.References to Hansard are now fairly frequently included in argument and beneath those references there must lie a large spoil heap of [parliamentary] material which has been mined in the course of research without yielding anything worthy even of a submission.”; recently Chartbrook Ltd v.Persimmon Ltd [2009] 3 WLR 267,281D (Lord Hoffmann):“Your Lordships’ experience in the analogous case of resort to statements in Hansard under the Rule in Pepper v Hart [1993] AC 593 suggests that such evidence will be produced in any case in which there is the remotest chance that it may be accepted and that even these cases will be only the tip of a mountain of discarded but expensive investigation.”米利特(Millet)大法官,在出庭律師理事會的一次演講中提到了佩珀訴哈特案這份“令人遺憾的判決”[注]Lord Millet,Construing Statutes,20 Statute L.Rev.107,110 (1999).,還有斯泰恩(Steyn)大法官,在2000年牛津舉辦的哈特(Hart) 講座中,認為不應當完全遵照佩珀訴哈特案的判決內容。根據經驗,他認為,查閱議會材料的權利是一件昂貴的奢侈品[注]Lord Steyn,Interpretation:Legal Texts and their Landscape,in Markesinis (ed.),The Clifford Chance Millenium Lectures,2000,p.79,87:“expensive luxury in our legal system”.,幾乎沒有任何好處,還可能違憲。他補充道,這項新的權利,使得行政部門能夠將自己的意志融進每個法案中,由此越權立法。[注]See Lord Steyn,Pepper v Hart; A Re-Examination,Oxford Journal of Legal Studies 21 (2001),59,68:“It was a rule of constitutional importance which guaranteed that only Parliament,and not the executive,ultimately legislates; and that the courts are obliged to interpret and apply what Parliament has enacted,and nothing more or less.To give the executive,which promotes a Bill,the right to put its own gloss on the Bill is a substantial inroad on a constitutional principle,shifting legislative power from Parliament to the executive.[...] Pepper v Hart treats qualifying ministerial policy statements as canonical.It treats them as a source of law.It is in constitutional terms a retrograde step:it enables the executive to make law.”; also Chartbrook Ltd v.Persimmon Ltd [2009] 3 WLR 267,281D (Lord Hoffmann):“Pepper v Hart has also encouraged ministers and others to make statements in the hope of influencing the construction which the courts will give to a statute [...].”
盡管這種批評和隨后的司法判決在一定程度上限制了佩珀訴哈特案的邊界,英國上議院——或者現在官方所稱的英國最高法院——仍然繼續(xù)支持此案。[注]Exhaustively,Vogenauer,A Retreat from Pepper v Hart? A Reply to Lord Steyn,Oxford Journal of Legal Studies 25 (2005),629; critical recently Munday,Interpretation of Legislation in England:The Expanding Quest for Parliamentary Intention,RanelsZ 75 (2011) (forthcoming).提到這點,最近一名英國上議院法官嘲諷道:“有些傳統主義者被看見公開閱讀英國議會議事錄就好像被抓到看黃色小說一樣”。[注]See Cooke,The Road Ahead for the Common Law,53 Int’l & Comp.L.Q.273,282 (2004).通過允許參考立法史,佩珀訴哈特案促進了英國法上目的解釋方法的進一步傳播,這使得一項法案的主觀目的有了最重要的意義。[注]See R (o/a Quintavalle) v Secretary of State for Health [2003] 2 AC 687,700:“The pendulum has swung towards purposive methods of construction.This change was not initiated by the teleological approach of European Community jurisprudence,and the influence of European legal culture generally,but it has been accelerated by European ideas.[...] [T]he shift towards purposive interpretation is not in doubt.”只關注條文詞句含義的字面規(guī)則這一做法由此似乎得到了很好的克服。
在美國早期,美國法院采用英國法律體系及其成文法解釋規(guī)則,包括排除規(guī)則。[注]See for example The Charles River Bridge v.The Warren Bridge,36 U.S.420,545 (1837):“We adopt and adhere to the rules of construction known to the English common law.”美國南北戰(zhàn)爭爆發(fā)后隨即迎來一場方法論解放運動,歷經整個19世紀下半葉。[注]Excellent comparative law treatment by Melin,Gesetzesauslegung in den USA und in Deutschland,2005,p.77 ff.and passim; Brudney,Below the Surface:Comparing Legislative History Usage by the House of Lords and the Supreme Court,85 Wash.U.L.Rev.1 (2007); and Healy,Legislative Intent and Statutory Interpretation in England and the United States,35 Stan.J.Int’l L.231 (1999).
1.成文法解釋的目的及方法
19世紀下半葉,也稱作古典時期,這一時期具有意向主義的特征,旨在確定歷史上的立法意圖。這種典型的解釋方法出現在當時最高法院的諸多判決中:“法律制定者的意圖構成了法律?!盵注]U.S.v.Hartwell,73 U.S.385,396 (1868); Atkins v.The Disintegrating Company,85 U.S.272,301 (1873); Indianapolis & St.L.R.Co.v.Horst,93 U.S.291,300 (1876).當然,當成文法解釋的目的旨在確立這種意圖時,一部法律的立法史就成為關鍵。與排除規(guī)則的徹底決裂出現在1892年最高法院對圣三一教堂訴美國案(Church of the Holy Trinity v.U.S.)[注]143 U.S.457 (1892).的判決中。[注]See Baade,Original Intent” in Historical Perspective:Some Critical Glosses,69 Tex.L.Rev.1063,1091 n.644 (1991):“[Holy Trinity] mark[ed] the definite rejection of the Court’s exclusionary rule.”; alsoFrickey,From the Big Sleep to the Big Heat:The Revival of Theory in Statutory Interpretation,77 Minn.L.Rev.241,247 (1992):“Holy Trinity Church is the case you always cite when the statutory text is hopelessly against you.”但是,在古典時期的最后階段,立法史材料的重要性開始衰落,然而,成文法解釋則變得愈發(fā)字面化。經常被引用的原因是,某一條文的詞句含義就是立法意圖的最佳寫照。[注]See The Saratoga,9 F.322,325 (1880):“The primary maxim for ascertaining the intent of a statute is to look first of all to the language of the act itself.”; from an English perspective,even earlier,The Sussage Peerage,8 Eng.Rep.1034,1057 (1844):“The words themselves alone [...] best declare the intention of the lawgiver.”
2.批判主義以及對批判主義的批判
在20世紀初,一場反對潮流席卷而來,其尖銳地批評了古典主義末期對立法史及其形式主義的關注。用奧利弗·溫德爾·霍姆斯(Oliver Wendell Holmens)現在很著名的話說,“法律的生命不在于邏輯,而在于經驗”。[注]Holmes,The Common Law,1881,p.1.對法律現實主義者的批評聽起來與德國人的觀點相似:共同的立法意圖恐怕不可能建立起來。[注]See Radin,Statutory Interpretation,43 Harv.L.Rev.863,870 (1930):“A legislature certainly has no intention whatever in connection with words which some two or three men drafted,which a considerable number rejected,and in regard to which many of the approving majority might have had,and often demonstrably did have,different ideas and beliefs.”而且,他們聲稱,國會的個體成員可以策略地論證,以便完成一部以政治為導向的法律或是阻撓一部不理想法律的誕生。最后,對立法意圖的探尋會過于武斷,以至于法官可能會將他們的裁決建立在這種武斷的立法意圖之上,同時將他們自己的價值觀強加到成文法解釋中。
盡管存在這些觀點,但立法史在美國判例法中的重要性卻在過去30年里得到了穩(wěn)步提升。隨著早期傳統被打破,最高法院甚至表現出,在遵循立法史會違背立法意圖或立法目的的情形下,愿意偏離普通的字面含義。[注]See U.S.v.American Trucking Associations,310 U.S.534,543 f.(1940); U.S.v.Dickerson,310 U.S.554,562 (1940).事實上,以前曾堅持過這種方法的普通含義規(guī)則被降為“經驗規(guī)則”。[注]Boston Sand & Gravel Co.v.U.S.,278 U.S.41,48 (1928) (Holmes,J.).最近,聯邦最高法院又開始強調成文法詞句含義的價值。與德國聯邦憲法法院的標準說明[注]N 72 above.非常具有一致性的是,肯尼迪(Kennedy)大法官撰寫的一項新的判決認為:“正如我們再三認為的那樣,官方的聲明應是法律文本,而不是立法史或者任何其他外來材料。外來材料在成文法解釋過程中的作用只限于闡明立法機關對模糊條款的可靠理解。并不是所有的外來材料都是洞察立法含義的可靠來源,然而,立法史容易受到兩種尖銳的批評。第一,立法史自身往往是晦澀難懂、含混不清的,甚至是互相矛盾的?!诙?,司法對于像委員會報告這樣的立法材料的依賴……可能會給沒有代表性的委員會成員,或更糟糕地,給未經選舉的職員和說客以權力和動機去策略地操縱立法史,從而確保他們實現通過法律文本不可能實現的目的”。[注]Exxon Mobil Corp.v.Allapattah Services,Inc.,545 U.S.546,568 f.(2005).
在法律理論中,許多學者著書立說來支持立法史在成文法解釋中的可采用性與實用性,即使其潛在被濫用的可能性無法被排除。[注]Indicative,for example,Breyer,On the Uses of Legislative History in Interpreting Statutes,65 S.Cal.L.Rev.845,847 (1992):“I should like to defend the classical practice and convince you that those who attack it ought to claim victory once they have made judges more sensitive to problems of the abuse of legislative history; they ought not condemn its use altogether.They should confine their attack to the outskirts and leave the citadel at peace.”一些作者嘗試在不同類型的立法史材料之間進行區(qū)別對待,例如,委員會報告比國會辯論期間的演講更為重要。[注]See for example Maltz,Statutory Interpretation and Legislative Power:The Case for a.Modified Intentionalist Approach,63 Tul.L.Rev.1,27 (1988):“In contrast to committee reports and explanations of floor managers,most statements made during debate by either supporters or opponents are not strong evidence of general legislative understanding.”這種被稱為目的論主義的解釋方法,是成文法解釋的進一步發(fā)展,其與意向主義密切相關。根據這個新方法,只有在立法史有助于澄清“成文法的意圖”時才是有意義的。[注]See Eskridge/Frickey (eds.),Hart & Sacks’ The Legal Process:Basic Problems in the Making and Application of Law,1994,p.1379:“The history should be examined for the light it throws on general purpose.”
上文所述的立法史的發(fā)展以及字面含義重要性的相對削弱,近日遭到了越來越多的批評。首先,他們以諷刺的方式來掩蓋批評,開玩笑地認為只有在立法史模糊不清時,才應尋求法律條文的字面含義。[注]Thus,for example,Frankfurter,Some Reflection on the Reading of Statutes,47 Colum.L.Rev.527,543 (1947):“Spurious use of legislative history must not swallow the legislation so as to give point to the quip that only when legislative history is doubtful do you go to the statute.”然而,這個玩笑是有關批評家的,在1971年,聯邦最高法院實際上對這些邊界做出了判斷:“立法史……是模糊的?!驗槠渌哂械哪:裕茱@然我們必須主要查看法律文本本身來探求立法意圖。”[注]Citizens to Preserve Overton Park v.Volpe,401 U.S.402,412 Fn.29 (1971).作為回應,意向主義的反對者提出了一個替代方法,即(新)文本主義。這個方法的支持者贊成回到嚴格遵照字面含義的成文法解釋上。這個方法也同樣適用于立法史,不同的支持者給出了不同的理由。
1.安東尼·斯卡利亞(Antonin Scalia):立法史以及民主合法性的缺失
安東尼·斯卡利亞(Antonin Scalia),聯邦最高法院法官,強有力的文本主義帶頭人,他看出立法史中沒有民主的合法性[注]See Conroy v.Aniskoff,507 U.S.511,519 (1993) (Scalia,J.,concurring):“The greatest defect of legislative history is its illegitimacy.”,甚至認為立法史的運用是違憲的。[注]See Scalia,A Matter of Interpretation:Federal Courts and the Law,1997,p.3,29 ff.,35.他的主要論點與德國客觀主義者觀點在形式或內容上很相似:立法史并不適用在立法程序中,因此對法院沒有約束力。斯卡利亞重寫了馬歇爾大法官在馬伯里訴麥迪遜案[注]5 U.S.137,163 (1803):“The government of the United States has been emphatically termed a government of laws,and not of men.”中的著名判決,斯卡利亞認為“我們是法治政府,不是委員會報告”[注]Wisconsin Public Intervenor v.Mortier,501 U.S.597,621 (1991) (Scalia,J.).。此外,他還指出,99.99%的成文法解釋案件中不存在立法意圖,因此任何以立法史為基礎的結論必然是錯的。[注]See Scalia (n 163 above),p.3,31 f.:“What is most exasperating about the use of legislative history,however,is that it does not even make sense for those who accept legislative intent as the criterion.It is much more likely to produce a false or contrived legislative intent than a genuine one.The first and most obvious reason for this is that,with respect to 99.99 percent of the issues of construction reaching the courts,there is no legislative intent,so that any clues provided by the legislative history are bound to be false.”斯卡利亞對法律的理解是形式主義的,他的這種理解遭到了反對,為了對這種反對觀點做出回應,他激烈地回答道:“法律當然是形式主義的!法律規(guī)則就是關于形式的?!盵注]Scalia (n 163 above),p.3,25.其他人還認為,嚴格遵循字面含義的成文法解釋會在司法裁決中提供更大的可預測性,甚至還會產生教學上的效果:當一個立法者意識到法院非常重視條文字面含義時,他會更謹慎地制定法律條文。[注]See Summers,Judge Richard Posner’s Jurisprudence,89 Mich.L.Rev.1302,1320 (1991):“At the same time,judicial adherence to the ordinary meaning of ordinary words in the statute may encourage the legislature to legislate more explicitly and thereby discourage ‘legislation’ hidden in mere committee reports and the like [...].Judicial adherence to the relevant ordinary meanings of ordinary words can also operate to encourage careful drafting and thus serve not only legitimacy and democracy but also the values specific to the rule of law.”
2.弗蘭克·伊斯特布魯克(Frank Esterbrook):立法史與公共選擇理論
弗蘭克·伊斯特布魯克,聯邦法官,公司法經濟分析的早期開拓者,主要運用基于新政治經濟學的公共選擇理論來證明他對立法史的懷疑是合理的。[注]See for example Arrow,Social Choice and Individual Values,2nd ed.1963; Buchanan/Tullock,The Calculus of Consent,1962.此理論表明,立法史尤其易被操縱,并為在國會中不能獲得多數席位的少數利益群體打開了閘門。由于這個原因,他也將“立法史”稱為“失敗者的歷史”,因為民選代表的行為越來越忠于這句格言,即“如果你不能使自己的提議進入法案,至少要寫部立法史來使你看起來像已經勝利了?!盵注]In re Sinclair,70 F2.d 1340,1343 (7th Cir.1989) (Easterbrook,J.).而且,伊斯特布魯克告誡不要篡改法律中已達成的妥協;不應當允許法院以所謂的真實的立法意圖為借口去糾正故意模糊的立法文本。[注]See Easterbrook,The Role of Original Intent in Statutory Construction,11 Harv.J.L.& Pub.Pol’y 59,63 (1988); Easterbrook,Statutes’ Domains,50 U.Chi.L.Rev.533,540,544 (1983):“Almost all statutes are compromises,and the cornerstone of many a compromise is the decision,usually unexpressed,to leave certain issues unresolved.[...] My suggestion is that unless the statute plainly hands courts the power to create and revise a form of common law,the domain of the statute should be restricted to cases anticipated by its framers and expressly resolved in the legislative process.”; recently summarising Manning,Second-Generation Textualism,98 Cal.L.Rev.1287 (2010):“Second-generation textualism argues that lawmaking inevitably involves compromise; that compromise sometimes requires splitting the difference; and that courts risk upsetting a complex bargain among legislative stakeholders if judges rewrite a clear but messy statute to make it more congruent with some asserted background purpose.”
3.阿德里安·沃繆勒(Adrian Vermeule):立法史與成本效益的考量
阿德里安·沃繆勒,曾經是斯卡利亞大法官的書記員,現在任哈佛法學院教授,最近提出可能是最激進的方法論提議。在他的《不確定狀態(tài)下的裁判》一書中,他提倡制度改變,這種改變要將法律發(fā)展過程中的司法錯誤成本以及在方法論問題中那些缺少約束力的先例考慮進去。[注]See Vermeule,Judging Under Uncertainty:An Institutional Theory of Legal Interpretation,2006; see the discussion of this in Eskridge,No Frills Textualism,119 Harv.L.Rev.2041 (2006); Nelson,Statutory Interpretation and Decision Theory,74 U.Chi.L.Rev.329 (2007); Siegel,Judicial Interpretation in the Cost-Benefit Crucible,92 Minn.L.Rev.387 (2007).根據他的觀點,法官事先并不知道,參閱立法史將會導致更清晰還是更混亂。唯一確定的是它會引發(fā)巨大的成本。[注]See Vermeule (n 172 above),p.183 ff.因此,從成本效益的角度以及從適用理由不充分的決策理論原則的角度來講,省掉所有進一步的解釋方法是可取的,包括在詞句含義很清晰的那些案件中的立法史。[注]See Vermeule (n 172 above),p.193.
最后,應該提及一下文本主義的一個新的逆流,這股逆流的目標是動態(tài)成文法解釋。與德國“主觀解釋”(geltungszeitliche Auslegung)相似,為了能夠考慮到當下環(huán)境的變化,這個方法允許法官修改(adapt)一部法律的解釋,即使這種修改違背了法律的歷史性立法意圖。動態(tài)成文法解釋方法的支持者們對立法機構并不信任,他們熱衷于通過動態(tài)解釋來克服國會的癱瘓與立法的缺陷,他們在這些方面是團結一致的。動態(tài)成文法解釋的支持者包括許多人物,像法哲學家羅納德·德沃金(Ronald Dworkin)[注]See Dworkin (n 11 above),p.313 ff.,法經濟學先驅圭多·卡拉布雷西(Guido Calabresi)[注]See Calabresi,A Common Law for the Age of Statutes,1982,p.1,87-89,214-216.,法學理論家威廉·艾斯康(William Eskridge)[注]See Eskridge,Dynamic Statutory Interpretation,1994,p.49ff.and passim.以及行為法學與經濟運動的共同創(chuàng)立者卡斯·桑斯坦(Cass Sunstein)[注]See Sunstein,Interpreting Statutes in the Regulatory State,103 Harv.L.Rev.405 (1989).。為了描述他們的解釋模式,這群人經常采用圖文并茂的類比。例如,在航海關系的比喻中,法律就像是一艘船,立法者建造它并送它出海;船的航向開始時是迷茫的;然而在公海上,主要是全體船員來決定船的航向。[注]Thus Aleinikoff,Updating Statutory Interpretation,87 Mich.L.Rev.20,21 (1988):“Congress builds a ship and charts its initial course,but the ship’s ports-of-call,safe harbors and ultimate destination may be a product of the ship’s captain,the weather,and other factors not identified at the time the ship sets sail.This model understands a statute as an on-going process (a voyage) in which both the shipbuilder and subsequent navigators play a role.The dimensions and structure of the craft determine where it is capable of going but the current course is set primarily by the crew on board.”他們的另一個比喻是,解釋過程就像連載小說一樣,不同的作者連續(xù)在講同一個故事;立法者在將一部立法通過的過程中,只寫故事的第一章。[注]Along these lines Dworkin,Law as Interpretation,60 Tex.L.Rev.527,541 (1982):“Suppose that a group of novelists is engaged for a particular project and that they draw lots to determine the order of the play.The lowest number writes the opening chapter of a novel,which he or she then sends to the next number who adds a chapter,with the understanding that he is adding a chapter to that novel rather than beginning a new one,and then sends the two chapters to the next number,and so on.”
總而言之,在美國,解釋方法論很難說是一致的。因此,1958年亨利·哈特(Henry Hart)和阿爾伯特·薩克斯(Albert Sacks)所做的令人深省的報告在某種程度上來說仍然適用于今天:“這個問題令人難以接受的事實是,美國法院并沒有易于理解的、被普遍接受的以及長期適用的成文法解釋理論”[注]Hart/Sacks (n 159 above),p.1169.。[注]Most recently in this vein Foster,Should Courts Give Stare Decisis Effect to Statutory Interpretation Methodology?,96 Geo L.J.1863,1866 (2008):“Scholars and judges [...] have agreed that this characterization continues to be an accurate description of American courts.”這在一定程度上源于這樣一種事實,即美國判例制度的遵循先例原則并不適用于法院做出的方法論說明。[注]See Foster (n 182 above),p.1872:“Many scholars have asserted in passing that the courts do not give doctrines of statutory interpretation stare decisis effect without engaging in further analysis.”; Gluck,Methodological Consensus and the New Modified Textualism,119 Yale L.J.1750,1754 (2010):“Methodological stare decisis-the practice of giving precedential effect to judicial statements about methodology-is generally absent from the jurisprudence of mainstream federal statutory interpretation,but appears to be a common feature of some states’ statutory case law.”除了主導法律話語的憲法解釋外,國家層面為了提前達到判決結構優(yōu)化的目標,在發(fā)展法院的成文法解釋規(guī)則或指導方針上也付出了努力。[注]In greater detail Gluck,The States as Laboratories of Statutory Interpretation:Methodological Consensus and the New Modified Textualism,119 Yale L.J.1750 (2010).一些觀察者將此看作是新改進的文本主義的發(fā)展,它“將不同的解釋方法列出明確的適用順序——文本分析在先,然后是立法史,接下來是默認司法推定——它包含不同等級的立法史?!盵注]Gluck (n 183 above),p.1758.《得克薩斯州法典解釋法》中的解釋規(guī)則被認為是一個特別突出的例子:
“§311.023.成文法解釋幫助
在解釋一部法律時,不論其表面上是不是含義模糊的,法院都可能會考慮一些其他因素(1)欲達到的目標;(2)法律制定的環(huán)境;(3)立法史;(4)普通法或者之前的法律條文,包括相同或相似主題的法律;(5)某項解釋會產生的后果;(6)法律的行政建構;以及(7)題目、前言以及緊急條款。”
自比較法涉足立法史領域之后,我們可以得出什么結論?
1.首先,這種普遍對法律解釋恢復興趣的潮流是受歡迎的。它為未來特別是法學方法論的比較視角的研究打開了諸多大有希望的渠道。而且,這次復興是對未來很好的預兆,因為它對歐洲統一的成文法解釋方法的發(fā)展來說是必不可少的。[注]In greater depth Fleischer,Europ?ische Methodenlehre-Stand und Perspektiven,RabelsZ 75 (2011) (forthcoming); Riesenhuber (ed.),Europ?ische Methodenlehre,2nd ed.2010.
2.我們可以覺察出,歐洲大陸法律體系以及盎格魯-薩克遜法律體系中的解釋方法日漸趨同。[注]Generally see Kramer,Konvergenz und Internationalisierung der juristischen Methode,in Assmann/Brüggemeier/Sethe (eds.),Unterschiedliche Rechtskulturen-Konvergenz des Rechtsdenkens,2001,p.31,33 ff.; as well as the monumental,two-volume work by Vogenauer (n 117 above).如今,幾乎所有地方都允許使用立法史。[注]See Vogenauer (n 117 above),p.1256:“Today,no differences can be made out between German,French and English case law with regard to legislative history.”; see also Healy,(n 146 above),p.233:“The Article concludes that English rules of statutory interpretation have become much more like U.S.rules and that Pepper itself shows how English law can be transformed,notwithstanding the House of Lords’ effort to place principled,clear and significant limits on intentionalist interpretation.”從比較法的視角來看也不驚奇,歐洲的解釋方法比美國的解釋方法更具一致性,在美國,成文法解釋的這個鐘擺左右搖晃得更加明顯。德國沒有或者至少不再有堅持認為不得使用立法史的安東尼·斯卡利亞大法官[注]For earlier proponents,see the evidence in n 66 above.;在英國,斯泰恩大法官盡管沒有斯卡利亞大法官那么廣泛的支持,但他卻是主要的批評家。[注]See also Brudney,Below The Surface:Comparing Legislative History Usage by The House of Lords and The Supreme Court,85 Wash.U.L.Rev.1,20 (2007):“In his Hart Lecture delivered at Oxford in May 2000,Lord Steyn assumed a lead critic’s stance comparable to Justice Scalia’s role in the Supreme Court.”
3.這些法律體系至今仍未建立制度化的程序,來更正并統一判例法中那些不一致的方法論主張。在德國,不論是規(guī)定法院裁判約束力的《聯邦憲法法院法》(BVerfGG)第31條,還是規(guī)定向聯邦最高法院(BGH)合議庭提交意見書的《法院憲法法案》(GVG)第132條,都未能發(fā)揮這個功能;在盎格魯-薩克遜體系中,方法論主張也缺少具有約束力的判例效力(遵循先例)。無論這種情形是否應被糾正[注]Showing cautious tendencies on behalf of German law Simon (n 78 above),p.588:“It is possible-perhaps due to the influence of the critical discussion on legal methods which has been on the rise since the 1970s-that we have finally come to the point where there are hardly any timeless insights to be gained in questions of methodology.For just that reason,it is possible to question whether a binding effect in matters of methodology is even desirable.Such doubts of course do nothing to change the fact that contradictory statements and procedures should be avoided in this field and other points of view (of one’s own Supreme Court!) should be taken into account.”; agreeing,for US law,Foster (n 182 above),p.1910:“Courts should give doctrines of statutory interpretation stronger stare decisis effect than they give to doctrines of substantive law.The net benefits of giving stare decisis effect to doctrines of statutory interpretation are greater than the net benefits of giving stare decisis effect to doctrines of substantive law.”,都必須在其他方面進行細致考察。
4.就目前這些反對使用立法史的論據儲備來看,法院幾乎未曾利用那些認識論上的考量,因為可以理解的是,他們都回避提到這些問題。[注]Of a similar view,Vogenauer (n 142 above),633:“All these are highly contentious jurisprudential and,ultimately,epistemological issues,and maybe this is why the courts refrained from entering this debate.”相反,憲法問題在判例法以及法律理論中起到越來越重要的作用。這與成文法解釋憲法化的總體趨勢相一致。從成本效益的視角來看,欲評價立法史的使用問題,采用講求實際主義的盎格魯-薩克遜方法比采用德國理論要容易得多。在德國,效率考量的使用通常都很模糊,而且經常被提起的暗示理論實際上是否真的會提高解釋效率仍需檢驗。
5.根據公共選擇理論[注]Critical,too,of the fact that the results of the public choice theory have hardly received any attention in German statutory interpretation,Melin (n 146 above),p.320,who seeks to explain this fact by pointing out that the scepticism with regard to legislative process is not as widespread in Germany as it is in the United States.,部分法官與法律學者有必要對有偏見的、片面的立法史來源的危險性保持更高的警惕。在議會層面也需要更加嚴格的預先管控以阻止可能發(fā)生的操縱行為。尤其需要關注的是“立法外包”過程中的準備工作。它與成文法解釋的關聯性以雙協議理論為前提,打個比方說:負責的部長接管全部或部分的外部提案;接下來德國聯邦議會(Bundestag)與聯邦參議院(Bundesrat)通過政府提案。盡管事先制定的文本的確不總是被整篇采用,但抵御住這些提案的誘惑實屬困難。在現代行為經濟學中,這被稱為現狀偏差。[注]See Krüper,lawfirm-legibus solutus?:Legitimit?t und Rationalit?t des Gesetzgebungsverfahrens beim Outsourcing“ von Gesetzentwürfen,JZ 2010,655.
6.立法史必須被嚴格遵守的觀念迄今為止已經很少有支持者了。立法史只是一個工具,就像佩珀訴哈特案(Pepper v.Hart)[注]See Pepper v.Hart [1993] AC 593,617D and G (Lord Griffith),634D and 639F (Lord Browne-Wilkinson).中提到的,是為了更好理解模糊條文的一種“幫助”或是“指導”。由此,這一時期的討論已轉向了立法史的重要性以及不同解釋方法的適用位階上。[注]See Brudney,Below The Surface:Comparing Legislative History Usage by The House of Lords and The Supreme Court,85 Wash.U.L.Rev.1,60 (2007):“The debate within the Law Lords between legislative history advocates and sceptics thus goes to weight more than admissibility.”然而,德國與盎格魯-薩克遜體系都沒有規(guī)定成文法解釋方法的適用位階。正如美國偉大的教授及法官菲利克斯·弗蘭克富爾特(Felix Frankfurter)認為的那樣:“成文法解釋沒有對數表。沒有任何證據具有固定的或平均的比重?!盵注]See Frankfurter,Some Reflection on the Reading of Statutes,47 Colum.L.Rev.527,543 f.(1947).
7.查閱立法史資料的義務在比較法上并沒有得到統一。一些國家在憲法中明確要求查閱立法史,而其他國家則只允許在法律條文含義不清或模糊的情況下才可以使用立法史。
8.迄今為止,仍然沒有立法史解釋的一般規(guī)則。[注]See Schroth (n 69 above),p.86:“There do not seem to be any general rules applicable to legislative history.”; Simon (n 78 above),p.260:“Strict rules on the use and interpretation of legislative history do not exist.The instructions developed in the 19th century with regard to common legislation on how to deal with legislative pronouncements normally and in cases of conflict have been more or less forgotten and were not developed any further.This abstinence on the part of theory is surprising [...].”然而,對法律學者來說,分析不同立法資料[注]For a U.S.perspective,see Brudney,Below The Surface:Comparing Legislative History Usage by The House of Lords and The Supreme Court,85 Wash.U.L.Rev.1,67 (2007):“To be sure,there is a broadly recognized hierarchy of reliable legislative history sources.Conference reports,standing committee reports,and explanatory floor statements by bill sponsors or managers are clustered near the top,while legislative inaction,statements by nonlegislative drafters,and post-enactment history are arrayed close to the bottom.”適用位階的可能性和局限性是一個值得研究的問題,這些立法資料包括專家組的預備報告以及部委起草人撰寫的評注中所包含的那些實際的或他們所理解的第一手解釋資料。[注]An indication in Alexy/Dreier,Statutory Interpretation in the Federal Republic of Germany,in MacCormick/Summers (eds.),Interpreting Statutes,1991,p.87:“For instance,sources of cognition can be parliamentary minutes,committee minutes,commission minutes,official justifications and commentary statements in the media.In general,everything may be taken into account.The more official a commentary statement and the closer its relation to the parliamentary plenum,the greater is its weight.Of the greatest weight is an intention expressed clearly and unanimously by all participants in the plenum.”; see also Fischer,Auslegungsziele und Verfassung.Zur Bedeutung der Entstehungsgeschichte für die Anwendung des Gesetzes,Festschrift Klaus Tipke,1995,p.187,205 f.此外,為了更好地評價這些資料的價值,法官和法律學者們應當從細節(jié)上考察準備法律的過程。[注]Also of this opinion Bennion,Hansard-Help or Hindrance? A Draftsman’s View of Pepper v.Hart,14 Statute L.Rev.149,162 (1993):“Courts and practitioners should be better educated in the techniques and practices of legislative drafting.Then they would better understand the nature of the task they have to carry out when enactments fall to be construed.”; in Germany,for over 100 years,attention has hardly been paid to the issues surrounding the origins and use of legislative history; notable exceptions are Baden (n 31 above),p.369 ff.; as well as Fischer (n 200 above),p.196.
9.最后一個建議并不是針對法官或法律學者的,而是針對立法者的。因為在目前成文法解釋的情況下,不能夠不考慮立法史,人們對立法史的作用、目標以及準確性的進一步思考是可取的。立法史作為法條的延伸,是用于回答個案問題呢,還是解決立法過程中出現的問題的儲備?或者它——應當采取目的論模式——完全或至少主要地被視為一般性立法意圖的表達?