林忠 吳潔瓊
(長(zhǎng)安大學(xué)外國(guó)語學(xué)院,陜西西安710000)
Jackendoff把副詞看作是小句結(jié)構(gòu)中的附加語,認(rèn)為副詞在句中的位置與副詞的語義有密切關(guān)系,并且根據(jù)副詞的語義將副詞分為飾句副詞(S-adverbs)和飾謂副詞(VP-adverbs)[1]。本文所指的句首漂移副詞為位于句首的英語副詞。
傳統(tǒng)英語語法通常將英語副詞分為時(shí)間副詞(temporal adverbs)、評(píng)價(jià)副詞(evaluative adverbs)、語氣副詞(modal adverbs)、連接副詞(conjunctive adverbs)、領(lǐng)域副詞(domain adverbs)和語用副詞(pragmatic adverbs)。句首副詞當(dāng)屬語用副詞的一種,從功能語法的角度來看,Eva Koktová認(rèn)為句首副詞不具有與焦點(diǎn)副詞(focus adverbs)一樣的管轄性質(zhì),將句首副詞看作是說話人對(duì)某一命題的評(píng)價(jià),標(biāo)志著句子焦點(diǎn)部分的開始[2]。有些學(xué)者則認(rèn)為句首副詞的轄域范圍是整個(gè)句子,如Van Valin提出了操作詞(operator)投射下的副詞層級(jí),副詞可以修飾小句的所有層級(jí),如認(rèn)知情態(tài)副詞(如probably)和傳信副詞(如evidently)可以修飾小句[3]。同樣地,Nuyts依據(jù)功能語法提出對(duì)某一事態(tài)進(jìn)行修飾、限定或評(píng)價(jià)的修飾范疇時(shí),其中就包括時(shí)(tense)、體(aspect)、相(phase)等副詞語義范疇[4]。相較于傳統(tǒng)的副詞語義分類,Hengeveld將語篇因素考慮在內(nèi),在傳統(tǒng)副詞分類中添加了語篇副詞(textual adverbs),如:firstly,finally等,這些副詞可用來示意前后語篇或文本之間的關(guān)系[5]。
隨著語法理論和語法研究的深入,學(xué)者們開始意識(shí)到話語篇章因素對(duì)語言表達(dá)方式和語法手段的重要性,轉(zhuǎn)而將語法現(xiàn)象放在話語篇章、上下文語境中來考察[6]。比如Tuija Virtanen在討論副詞分類和分布的基礎(chǔ)上,詳細(xì)闡明了句首狀語在篇章中的銜接作用,描述了句首表時(shí)間和地點(diǎn)的副詞短語不僅可以推動(dòng)語篇發(fā)展,且具有切分語篇的作用,使得語篇具有層次感[7]。Ana Ortigosa Pastor在具體語境中詳細(xì)闡述了時(shí)間副詞“yesterday,tomorrow,today”的指示作用和其對(duì)信息結(jié)構(gòu)產(chǎn)生的影響[8]。Evers-Vermeul采用量化研究的方法對(duì)連詞“so”的形式和功能進(jìn)行探討,發(fā)現(xiàn)“so”具有語篇標(biāo)記的人際功能(interpersonal function)[9]。Nuyts討論了主觀性在情態(tài)副詞中的表現(xiàn)方式[10]。Agnès Celle則發(fā)現(xiàn)語氣副詞在特定語境中具有交互功能[11]。
縱觀以上研究,學(xué)界對(duì)句首副詞的研究主要集中于對(duì)其含義、分類的界定,并沒有從句法漂移的角度來考察其篇章功能。因此,本研究從Treasure Island[12]小說文本中選取語料,自建20萬字的封閉語料庫(kù),旨在從篇章功能角度研究英語句首漂移副詞的分布特點(diǎn)。
句首漂移副詞的位置主要位于主語之前。在以往的研究中,語言學(xué)家們將句首漂移副詞視為句子的附加語,而Cinque則主張將句首漂移副詞看作是具有表達(dá)功能的標(biāo)記詞[13],除此之外,他還認(rèn)為副詞在句中的位置和句子結(jié)構(gòu)有很大關(guān)系。Costa通過先假設(shè)后舉例驗(yàn)證的方法,探討了影響副詞在句中位置分布的因素,發(fā)現(xiàn)副詞在句中的位置不僅與副詞本身的性質(zhì)有關(guān),如副詞的意義、音節(jié),還與句法結(jié)構(gòu)、句子的語義有關(guān),最重要的是和信息需求相關(guān),即與具體的語境相關(guān)[14]。
我們注意到,當(dāng)語氣副詞與表達(dá)從屬關(guān)系的連詞共現(xiàn)時(shí),語氣副詞必須居于連詞前面。例如:
(1)Indeed,as we found when we also reached the spot,it was something very differently.
除此之外,我們還認(rèn)為,句首漂移副詞與表達(dá)并列關(guān)系的連詞共現(xiàn)時(shí),句首漂移副詞居于表達(dá)并列關(guān)系連詞的后面。例如:
(2)And I thought it was a dirty rather too dolefully appropriate for a company that had met such cruel losses in the morning.But,indeed,from what I saw,all these buccaneers were as callous as theseathey sailed on.
例(2)中的語氣副詞“indeed”位于并列連詞“but”之后,這種分布體現(xiàn)了句首漂移副詞形式與功能的一一對(duì)應(yīng)關(guān)系。
值得注意的是,并不是所有出現(xiàn)在主語之前的副詞都是句首漂移副詞。比如,當(dāng)焦點(diǎn)副詞(focusadverbs)出現(xiàn)在句首時(shí),其只能對(duì)句子中的某個(gè)特定成分作限定,而非修飾全句。例如:
(3)Only,as we had no power to anchor,and dared not beach her till the tide had flowed a good deal farther,time hung on our hands.
因?yàn)榻裹c(diǎn)副詞語義上具有排他性,所以句首的副詞“only”只修飾后面的“no power to anchor”,并且很明顯是,剩下的主句和分句都不能由“only”來進(jìn)行修飾。
因此,焦點(diǎn)副詞在句子中的管轄范圍只能是句子中的某一個(gè)成分,而非全句,無論是在句首還是句中都不是句首漂移副詞。
已有學(xué)者注意到副詞本身的意義會(huì)對(duì)副詞在句中的分布產(chǎn)生影響。如Li&Thompson提到句首副詞的語義時(shí),指出位于主語前句首的副詞包括表達(dá)時(shí)間及觀點(diǎn)意義的兩種副詞,而修飾謂語的副詞主要是用來說明句中事物情態(tài)的[15]。
而本研究所關(guān)注的問題是,在句中分布位置不同但具有相同語言表達(dá)形式的副詞是否會(huì)展現(xiàn)不同的語義特征,且所要表達(dá)的語義有何差異。我們發(fā)現(xiàn)了以下兩個(gè)特別重要的問題:
1.語氣副詞在句中分布的位置,會(huì)影響言者主觀性的強(qiáng)弱程度,進(jìn)而影響言者對(duì)所述內(nèi)容的信度。
(4)Certainly,since the mutiny began,not a man of themcould ever havebeen sober.
(5)This was certainly the end of both of us,I thought.
(6)Care killed a cat.Fetch ahead for the doubloons.We started,certainly.
上述例句中,語氣副詞“certainly”分別位于句首、句中和句末。例(4)中的“certainly”以韻律獨(dú)立的形式位于句首,其語義獨(dú)立,具有極強(qiáng)的主觀性①,更加凸出言者對(duì)所述內(nèi)容的信度。這種顯著差異可以從例(5)中得到證明。在例(5)中,副詞“certainly”位于主語之后,句末可以加后續(xù)成分“I thought”,反觀例(4),在句末后續(xù)加“Ithought”就很奇怪。例(6)中的“certainly”則表示對(duì)“fetch”這一客觀動(dòng)作的重復(fù),所以沒有主觀意義,更沒有信度可談。
2.多義副詞在句首和句中意義不同,在句首更傾向于將其解讀為表達(dá)時(shí)間或者評(píng)價(jià)意義的副詞。
表摹狀意義的副詞,用作修飾謂語時(shí)表摹狀意義,用在句首作為句首漂移副詞時(shí)表時(shí)間意義。例如:
(7)They,on their part,drew gradually together towards the far end of the blockhouse,and the low hiss of their whispering sounded in my ear continuously like astream.
(8)So I must have lain for hours,continually beaten to and fro upon the billows,now and again wetted with flying sprays,and never ceasing to expect death at the next plunge.Gradually weariness grew upon me;a numbness,an occasional stupor,fell upon my mind even in the midst of my terrors,until sleep at last supervened and in my sea-tossed coracle I lay and dreamed of home and the old Admiral Benbow.
例(8)中的“Gradually”具有明顯的切分情節(jié)的作用,前文表述的是事件的過程,后文與連詞“until”一同表述結(jié)果。正是這個(gè)原因,例(7)中,放在主語之后的“gradually”,其意義從表時(shí)間變?yōu)楸硎录械臓顟B(tài)變化。
表頻度意義的副詞,作修飾謂語時(shí)用來表示動(dòng)作的頻率。用于句首時(shí),不僅能夠表示頻度意義,而且巧妙地將篇章信息銜接了起來。例如:
(9)Time after time he was ordered below in disgrace.Sometimes he fell and cut himself;sometimes he lay all day long in his little bunk at one side of the companion;sometimes for a day or two he would be almost sober and attend to his work at least passably.
(10)With this to help me,I passed rapidly over what remained to me of my journey;and,sometimes walking,sometimes running,impatiently drewnear tothe stockade.
例(10)中的“sometimes”位于主語后修飾謂語動(dòng)詞,表動(dòng)作的頻率,如果將其替換成其他的頻度副詞,依然是一個(gè)在語法上能接受的句子。例(9)中位于句首的“sometimes”所引導(dǎo)的小句是對(duì)前面提出的命題的進(jìn)一步細(xì)化、闡述,體現(xiàn)與前句之間的總分關(guān)系,提供背景信息來豐富篇章信息,推動(dòng)故事情節(jié)的發(fā)展。
表方式意義的副詞用于修飾謂語時(shí)表達(dá)某事被完成的方式,當(dāng)位于句首時(shí)可以解讀為表時(shí)間意義的副詞。
(11)“Round thehouse,lads!Round thehouse!”cried the captain;and even in the hurly-burly,I perceived a change in his voice.Mechanically,I obeyed,turned eastwards,and with my cutlass raised,ran round thecorner of thehouse.
例(11)中,“mechanically”為方式副詞位于句首,其前表述事件的過程,其后表述結(jié)果。因此具有表達(dá)事件進(jìn)程的意義,具有推動(dòng)篇章發(fā)展的作用。
例(7)-(11)中,句首的副詞都表達(dá)時(shí)間意義,是后敘事物存在的必要條件,所以都不能向后移動(dòng),因?yàn)楹笠浦蟮囊饬x就不再表示事件的進(jìn)程,自然篇章也不能向前推進(jìn)。
我們認(rèn)為,上文研究所揭示的句首副詞的語義表達(dá)傾向性主要是由篇章信息,即具體語境決定的。屈承熹認(rèn)為表達(dá)時(shí)間或觀點(diǎn)的副詞的位置與篇章結(jié)構(gòu)有很密切的關(guān)系,副詞在主語前或主語后,與整段或整篇文章的連貫與否,關(guān)系至大[16]。
零形回指形式是使得語篇中話題具有最高延續(xù)性的表現(xiàn)方式[17]。但是,當(dāng)句首出現(xiàn)表評(píng)價(jià)意義的副詞時(shí),話題延續(xù)性將暫時(shí)受到阻礙,表現(xiàn)為當(dāng)下出現(xiàn)表評(píng)價(jià)意義副詞的小句中需要顯性主語。
語氣副詞是一個(gè)句子的外接成分,不包含在句子之內(nèi),是指可以表達(dá)言者對(duì)一個(gè)命題所持有什么樣的態(tài)度、評(píng)價(jià)的副詞。在所構(gòu)建的語料庫(kù)中,我們發(fā)現(xiàn)語氣副詞后接陳述句,表達(dá)言者對(duì)命題的態(tài)度。例如:
(12a)Silver hobbled,grunting,on his crutch;his nostrils stood out and quivered;he cursed like a madman when the flies settled on his hot and shiny countenance;he plucked furiously at the line that held me to him,and,from time to time,turned his eyes upon me with a deadly look.Certainly he took no pains to hide his thoughts,and certainly I read themlikeprint.
(12b)Silver hobbled,grunting,on his crutch;his nostrils stood out and quivered;he cursed like a madman when the flies settled on his hot and shiny countenance;he plucked furiously at the line that held me to him,from time to time,turned his eyes upon me with a deadly look and took no pains to hide histhoughts,and certainly Iread themlikeprint.
例(12a)完全可以用例(12b)進(jìn)行表達(dá)。例(12b)是一個(gè)完整的話題鏈,其話題為“Sliver”,后續(xù)小句都圍繞這個(gè)主題展開。最后一個(gè)小句中“plucked furiously”“turned his eyes”“took no pains”的零形主語都指向“he”。但在“took no pains”前加入評(píng)價(jià)副詞“certainly”時(shí),話題鏈發(fā)生了輕微斷裂(less continuity)②,“took no pains”的前面必須出現(xiàn)相應(yīng)的顯性主語“he”。但如果出現(xiàn)在“certainly”后的顯性主語是“Sliver”,那么該話題鏈則會(huì)徹底斷裂。再如:
(13a)Silver in the stern-sheets——him I could always recognize——while a couple of men were leaning over the stern bulwarks,one of them with a red cap——the very rogue that I had seen some hours before stride-legs upon the palisade.Apparently they were talking and laughing,though at that distance——upward of a mile——Icould,of course,hear noword of what wassaid.
(13b)Silver in the stern-sheets——him I could always recognize——while a couple of men were leaning over the stern bulwarks,talking and laughing,one of them with a red cap——the very rogue that I had seen some hours before stride-legs upon the palisade,though at that distance——upward of a mile——I could,of course,hear no word of what was said.
與上兩個(gè)例子情況相同,例(13a)完全可以用例(13b)進(jìn)行表達(dá)。例(13b)中,動(dòng)詞“l(fā)eaning”“taking”“l(fā)aughing”的主語都是“a couple of men”。但當(dāng)評(píng)價(jià)副詞“apparently”出現(xiàn)在“talking”和“l(fā)aughing”之前時(shí),顯性主語“they”必須出現(xiàn),話題鏈發(fā)生輕微斷裂。
韻律獨(dú)立表評(píng)價(jià)意義的句首漂移副詞在篇章中的作用要遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)大于不獨(dú)立的情況。已有研究早已注意到句首漂移副詞的韻律獨(dú)立性。呂叔湘在談到連詞與副詞的劃界時(shí)提出:既可以位于主語之前,也可以位于主語之后的是連詞;在沒有停頓的情況下,不能位于主語前、只能位于主語后的是副詞。換句話說,在有停頓的情況下,位于主語之前的是副詞,主語前的連詞是不伴隨停頓的[18]。
韻律獨(dú)立的句首漂移副詞在書面語里往往用標(biāo)點(diǎn)隔開。例如:
(14)Indeed,he seemed in the most cheerfulspirits,whistling as he moved about among the tables,with a merry word or a slap on the shoulder for themorefavoured of hisguests.
此例中“indeed”位于句首,且韻律獨(dú)立,后續(xù)小句中的主語具有共指關(guān)系,都是指主句中的“he”。所以說,副詞“indeed”作為一個(gè)篇章管界成分標(biāo)記③將各個(gè)小句組成一個(gè)完整的子句鏈(clause chain)④,形成了篇章結(jié)構(gòu)中最基本的單位。我們可以從中得出,韻律獨(dú)立的句首漂移副詞轄域范圍要大于小句,會(huì)擴(kuò)大到整個(gè)句子,而韻律不獨(dú)立的形式則不同于此,例如:
(15)By this time the schooner and her little consort were gliding pretty swiftly through the water;indeed we had already fetched up level with the campfire.
例(15)中,雖然“indeed”位于小句之首,但是其轄域只有一個(gè)簡(jiǎn)單句,沒有形成一個(gè)完整的子句鏈,所以管轄范圍相對(duì)較小。再如:
(16)Iwill confess that Iwas far too much taken up with what was going on to be of the slightest use as sentry;indeed,I had already deserted my eastern loophole and crept up behind the captain,who had now seated himself on the threshold,with his elbows on his knees,his head in his hands,and his eyes fixed on the water,as it bubbled out of the old iron kettle in thesand.
例(16)中的“indeed”具有韻律獨(dú)立的形式,其后的小句可以不止一個(gè),后面語句的內(nèi)部關(guān)系也可以是復(fù)雜句,這使得具有韻律獨(dú)立形式的句首漂移副詞的特征更為顯豁。
英語中的情態(tài)表達(dá)語,即實(shí)現(xiàn)情態(tài)意義的具體的語言學(xué)手段,主要指?jìng)鹘y(tǒng)語法中所說的情態(tài)動(dòng)詞。而Halliday在系統(tǒng)功能語法中將情態(tài)附加語(modal adjunct)列入了情態(tài)表達(dá)語的范圍,情態(tài)附加語又分為語氣附加語(mood adjunct)和評(píng)論附加語(comment adjunct)。語氣附加語主要指表示語氣意義的副詞,即語氣副詞,其主要功能是充當(dāng)狀語,語義作用主要表達(dá)可能性與通常性[19]。表達(dá)可能性的語氣副詞有“probably、possibly、surely、indeed、certainly、maybe、perhaps”等。幾乎所有的語氣副詞都能位于句子的開頭,使得句首漂移副詞的篇章功能更加顯豁。
同語氣副詞一樣,表時(shí)間意義的句首漂移副詞也具有韻律獨(dú)立的形式。例如:
(17)If the mutineers succeeded in crossing the stockade,he argued,they would take possession of any unprotected loophole,and shoot us down like ratsin our own stronghold.
Nor had we much time left to us for thought.Suddenly,with a loud huzza,a little cloud of pirates leaped from the woods on the north side and ran straight on the stockade.At the same moment the fire was once more opened from the woods,and a rifle-ball sang through the doorway,and knocked the doctor’s musket into bits.
此例中韻律獨(dú)立的時(shí)間副詞“suddenly”出現(xiàn)在句首,使語篇的描寫場(chǎng)景發(fā)生明顯變化,前后的故事情節(jié)發(fā)生明顯轉(zhuǎn)折,體現(xiàn)了語篇中事件發(fā)展的重要節(jié)點(diǎn),并與后面的時(shí)間短語“at the same moment”共同推進(jìn)故事情節(jié)的發(fā)展。劉小輝發(fā)現(xiàn),時(shí)間副詞位于句首的情況只出現(xiàn)在小說和北京口語的敘述部分,并且當(dāng)時(shí)間副詞處于句首時(shí),主語或話題有明顯的轉(zhuǎn)換[20]。如果我們立足于韻律獨(dú)立的句首漂移副詞具有情節(jié)節(jié)點(diǎn)標(biāo)記的作用這一情況下來考慮,這種現(xiàn)象就可以理解了。
所以說,韻律獨(dú)立的句首漂移副詞具有情節(jié)節(jié)點(diǎn)的標(biāo)記作用,而韻律不獨(dú)立的句首漂移副詞則不具備這一特征。例如:
(18)The current had turned at right angles,sweeping round along with it the tall schooner and the little dancing coracle;ever quickening,ever bubbling higher,ever muttering louder,it went spinningthrough the narrowsfor theopen sea.
Suddenly the schooner in front of me gave a violent yaw,turning,perhaps,through twenty degrees.
此例中雖然“suddenly”前后主語或主題不一致,前文的主語為“current”而后文的主語為“schooner”,但是描寫場(chǎng)景并沒有變化,所以“suddenly”的主要作用為隔離階段性的主要參與者,起到標(biāo)示話題界線的作用。并且只是簡(jiǎn)單地顯示時(shí)間推移的間斷,并沒有顯示情節(jié)節(jié)點(diǎn)的標(biāo)記作用。
同時(shí),我們認(rèn)為只有表瞬時(shí)性的時(shí)間副詞(punctual adverbs)⑤具有韻律獨(dú)立的形式時(shí),句首漂移副詞才具有情節(jié)節(jié)點(diǎn)的標(biāo)記作用,而普通的時(shí)間副詞(temporal adverbs)不具備這樣的篇章功能。例如:
(19)He had found a longish fir-tree lying felled and trimmed in the enclosure,and with the help of Hunter he had set it up at the corner of the log-house where the trunks crossed and made an angle.Then,climbing on the roof,he had with his own hand bent and run up the colours.
此例中的時(shí)間副詞“then”雖具有韻律獨(dú)立的形式,但其前后的主語沒有發(fā)生轉(zhuǎn)換,所以其不具備情節(jié)節(jié)點(diǎn)標(biāo)記的作用。
所以說,只有事件中的主語或主題發(fā)生明顯變化,并且句中有表瞬時(shí)性意義的時(shí)間副詞位于句首,且具有韻律獨(dú)立的形式時(shí),這樣時(shí)間副詞才具有推動(dòng)故事情節(jié)發(fā)展的作用。
特別值得注意的是,在前文中所提到的屬于廖秋忠所說的可以成為篇章管界成分且表示“狀況”一類的副詞“常?!盵21],雖然可以以韻律獨(dú)立的形式位于句首,但是它所修飾的成分僅有謂語,例如:
(20)Often,as I still lay at the bottom and kept no more than an eye above the gunwale,I would see abig bluesummit heaving closeabove me.
此例中,句首韻律獨(dú)立的副詞“often”,只能修飾主句中的謂語成分“would see”,不能修飾整個(gè)句子,所以對(duì)篇章情節(jié)的推進(jìn)沒有作用。
基于前人的研究,運(yùn)用篇章語法的相關(guān)理論,采用描寫與個(gè)案相驗(yàn)證的方法,主要從分布、語義和篇章三個(gè)方面對(duì)句首漂移副詞進(jìn)行了較為系統(tǒng)的分析與研究。從漂移角度探究副詞的篇章功能,即從句法分析的角度進(jìn)行,副詞位于主語之后的作謂語修飾語,位于句首的副詞被稱為飾句副詞或句首修飾語。同時(shí),也對(duì)篇章中其他語言現(xiàn)象(話題鏈、韻律獨(dú)立現(xiàn)象)從副詞的角度做出了闡釋。在接下來的研究中,應(yīng)以動(dòng)態(tài)的眼光看待副詞在篇章發(fā)展中所起的作用,如句首漂移副詞對(duì)話題的引進(jìn)、話題的延續(xù)性、前景信息和背景信息的使用和新舊信息的出現(xiàn)會(huì)有怎樣的影響作用,相信會(huì)推動(dòng)對(duì)副詞和篇章功能的研究。
注釋:
①Claudia Corum在討論關(guān)于位于句首的語氣副詞時(shí)指出,位于句首的語氣副詞具有最強(qiáng)的主觀性,他在文中使用了“es?tablish his/her‘a(chǎn)uthority’”這個(gè)短語。
②Givón提出話題延續(xù)性斜坡Comment only>comment-topic>topic-comment>repeated topic。當(dāng)評(píng)論性話語出現(xiàn)在話題之前時(shí),話題鏈發(fā)生輕微斷裂;當(dāng)話題的表現(xiàn)形式為零形式時(shí),話題鏈的延續(xù)程度最高;當(dāng)話題以完整的形式被重復(fù)使用時(shí),話題鏈則會(huì)徹底斷裂。此例子中如果再次出現(xiàn)話題“Sliver”,話題鏈就會(huì)發(fā)生斷裂。同時(shí)他還提出,話題零形式是話題鏈延續(xù)程度最高的表現(xiàn)形式,其次是代詞形式,最后為完整的名詞形式。
③廖秋忠所提出的篇章管界狀語成分主要包括九類:(1)時(shí)間和處所詞或短語;(2)狀況短語;(3)過程短語;(4)目的短語;(5)消息來源短語;(6)角度短語;(7)評(píng)估短語;(8)話題短語;(9)方面短語。
④Givón在提出關(guān)于篇章層級(jí)結(jié)構(gòu)時(shí)指出,子句鏈(clausechain)是篇章銜接結(jié)構(gòu)中最基本的單位。
⑤Van Valin在對(duì)詞語進(jìn)行分類時(shí),提到了“punctual adverbs”一詞,如:immediately,suddenly等。